Table of Contents
Preface 8
Part 1 Elements 13
Chapter 1 Points and Lines 15
Introduction 16
Points 20
Types of Line 22
Line Direction 24
Box–De Stijl: Netherlands, 1917—32 25
Box–Constructivism: Russia, 1919—34 26
Line Quality 28
Lines and Outlines–Describing Shapes 30
Box–Pop Art: England and America,
1950—70s 31
Contours, Wireframes, and Freeform
Gesture 32
Lines as Value–Cross-Hatching and
Screening 34
Imaginary Lines–Lost and Found Edges 36
Box–Plakastil: Germany, 1900—21 37
Exercises 37
Chapter 2 Shape 39
Introduction 40
Geometric and Rectilinear Shapes 46
Curvilinear and Biomorphic Shapes 48
Box–Art Nouveau: France, Worldwide
1890—1914 49
Abstract and Non-representational
Shapes 50
Box–Cubism: France, 1907—14 51
Text and Type 52
Positive and Negative Shapes 54
Distortion and Idealism 56
Box–The Renaissance: Italy,
14th to 16th Century 57
Exercises 59
Chapter 3 Texture 61
Introduction 62
Tactile Texture 66
Collage 68
Box–Dada: Germany and Paris,
1916—22 70
Visual Texture 72
Trompe L’oeil 74
Pattern 76
Exercises 77
Chapter 4 Space–Creating the
Illusion of Depth 79
Introduction 80
Space–Shallow and Deep 86
Size Cues 88
Linear Perspective 90
One-Point Perspective 94
Two-Point Perspective 96
Three-Point Perspective 98
Amplified and Aerial Perspective 100
Metric Projections 102
Box–Modernism: Worldwide,
1890—1970 105
Open and Closed Compositions 106
Spatial Confusion 108
Exercises 109
Chapter 5 Time and Motion 111
Introduction 112
Box–Kinetic Art 112
Anticipated Motion 116
Repeated Figures 118
Multiple Images 120
Box–Futurism: Italy, 1909—16 120
Motion Blur 122
Box–Abstract Expressionism: America,
1940s—60s 123
Exercises 123
Chapter 6 Value 125
Introduction 126
Patterns of Value 132
Chiaroscuro–Light and Shade 134
Digital Shading and Lighting 138
Exercises 141
Chapter 7 Color 143
Introduction 144
Box–Impressionism: France,
1867—86 147
What Is Color? 148
Color Characteristics 150
Color Theory–Wheels, Triangles,
and Trees 152
Box–Bauhaus: Germany, 1919—33 152
Color Through the Ages 154
Color Printing, Computers, and the Web 158
Color Interactions 160
Box–Pointillism: France, 1883—1900 160
Color Schemes 162
Using Color 166
Warm and cool 167
Emphasis 167
Box–The Pre-Raphaelites: Britain,
1848—60 167
Visual balance 168
Space and depth 168
Box–Fauvism: France, 1905—08 168
Value 169
The Meaning of Color 170
Exercises 171
Part 2 Rules 173
Chapter 8 Unity and Harmony 175
Introduction 176
Thematic Unity 180
Gestalt and Visual Unity 182
The Grid 184
Achieving Unity 186
Exercises 189
Chapter 9 Balance 191
Introduction 192
Formal and Informal Balance 196
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Balance 198
Balance by Shape and Texture 200
Balance by Value and Color 202
Balance by Position and Eye Direction 204
Radial Balance 206
Crystallographic Balance 208
Exercises 209
Chapter 10 Scale and Proportion 211
Introduction 212
Human Scale 216
Contrast and Confusion 220
Box–Surrealism: France, 1924—39 221
Ideal Proportion 222
Exercises 225
Chapter 11 Contrast and
Emphasis 227
Introduction 228
Contrast by Value and Color 232
Isolation 234
Placement 236
Absence of Focal Point 238
Exercises 241
Chapter 12 Rhythm 243
Introduction 244
Rhythm and Motion 248
Alternating and Progressive Rhythm 250
Box–Art Deco: Worldwide,
1920—39 250
Rhythmic Sensation 252
Exercises 253
Glossary 254
Bibliography 262
Web Resources 264
Picture Credits 265
Index 267
Forewords & Introductions
"Reason informed by emotion... expressed in beauty... elevated by earnestness... lightened by humor... that is the ideal that should guide all artists."
– CHARLES RENNIE MACKINTOSH
What is art? Art is what artists do, Dadaist Marcel Duchamp might have said. Art is what you can get away with, you may be tempted to think when looking at contemporary artworks. The word art derives from Sanskrit and means "making" or "creating something". We can only guess why our earliest ancestors started to make art, drawing and carving on cave walls. Egyptian wall paintings and African art have a ritual dimension, but still manage to delight our eyes. The ancient Greeks and Romans surrounded their lives with culture: poetry, theater, sculptures-and paintings, few of which survive. They were probably the first artists who painted purely for pleasure and for the joy their art gave others. Whatever the reasons for creating, art enriches our lives, stimulates our senses, or simply makes us think. Artists have come to be revered for their gift of profound insight into the human condition.
In Byzantine and Renaissance times, being an artist was just a job: painters had workshops full of assistants, and artisans making paint and preparing panels and canvases. They generally produced religious artworks for wealthy patrons. It was only in the late nineteenth century that "art for art's sake" began to emerge, art being seen as an expression of the artist's emotions. Since then Hollywood has depicted such artists as Vincent van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec as glamorous yet tortured visionaries who suffered for their art, locked away in solitary garrets.Abstract art followed, and today almost anything goes.
What is design? Its roots are found in the Italian word disegnare, to create. In these days of designer jeans and kitchens, it is easy to think of design equating to stylish consumer goods or gadgets, made desirable by clever and knowing graphics (which draw ultimately on art for inspiration). We can forget that everything artificial—good or bad—has been designed by someone.
In its broadest sense, design is preparing for action: planning and organizing. We might have "designs" on someone, and plan how we can engineer a successful outcome. Architects design buildings, industrial designers design products, and artists design paintings and sculptures. This book looks at design in the easel-based arts, with references to the allied arts of photography and sculpture. By easel arts we mean drawing, painting, and printmaking, in the sense of making marks on paper or canvas, or the screen-based arts: video, computer, and installation-based works. The computer has blurred the boundaries between the traditional creative disciplines, but they all share a need for planning and visual organization.
Design can also be considered as a form of problem-solving. But unlike math, in art there is never a single correct solution. This is why artists and designers are often called "creatives." Painters and sculptors often set their own tasks; designers and illustrators are given a brief with strictly defined parameters, and attempt a design based on those constraints. Even in abstract expressionism, where you might imagine that all the artist does is throw a pot of paint at the canvas and hope for the best, there are underlying processes at work. The artist's eye and hand in tandem are guided by a need to produce an outcome, and he or she is informed by the whole history of art up until that point. Chance and randomness do have a place, but serendipity is a better term: you need skill and experience to turn a happy accident to your advantage.
It is beyond the scope of this book to provide a comprehensive overview of art history, but there are plenty of other books and web resources—some of which are listed toward the end of this book, should you be inspired to explore further. Nor can this book be an art appreciation guide, although understanding how and why artworks were created, what the artists were trying to achieve, and who their influences were will pay dividends when planning your own works. Looking should be the main education of every artist.
Design in the context of this book means, simply, composition. How do we place and arrange the various elements of design discussed in Part 1—of little use on their own-to create a unified and thoughtful piece of work that will interest the viewer? The way in which to go about this, using rules or principles, is outlined in Part 2. The many illustrations serve as examples, and as inspiration. Although the chapters are set out in a logical sequence, it is almost impossible to isolate a particular element—discussing line, for example-without mentioning its textural component. There will be some repetition and overlap, but perhaps the reader will recognize that all the elements and principles of design are equally important, and, once joined together in the right combination, they will result in a successful artwork. We describe them; how they are used is up to you.
Many people have contributed to the creation of this book. I should like to thank in particular Lee Greenfield for commissioning me to write it, my editor Richard Mason for his patience and eye for detail, my picture researcher Sue Bolsom for her tireless work and lateral thinking, and the designer Ian Hunt for assembling words and images into a harmonious composition. I should also like to thank friends and colleagues of the Brighton Illustrators Group, many of whom have contributed images, and the staff of Brighton University Library at St. Peter's House and of Brighton Public Library for their help in research.
Alan Pipes, July 2003
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