false
Social Psychology by Smith Eliot R., Diane M. MacKie, Diane M. Mackie
BUY IT NEW
- Limited Time Offer! Everyone receives the Member Price on books.
See Details - This item is currently out of stock.
- Add To List uiAction=GetAllLists&page=List&pageType=list&ean=9781841694092&productCode=BK&maxCount=100&threshold=3
Textbook (Paperback - REV)
- 657pp
TEXTBOOK INFORMATION
- ISBN-13: 9781841694092
- Edition Description: REV
- Edition Number: 3
- Pub. Date: February 2006
- Publisher: Taylor & Francis, Inc.
Buy it Used: 17 copies from $41.88 See All Available
Product Details
- Pub. Date: February 2006
- Publisher: Taylor & Francis, Inc.
- Format: Textbook Paperback, 657pp
- ISBN-13: 9781841694092
- ISBN: 1841694096
- Edition Number: 3
- Edition Description: REV
Synopsis
Social Psychology, 3rd Edition provides the only conceptually integrated undergraduate introduction to social psychology, offering a clear synthesis of the cognitive and social, and individual and group influences that shape social behavior.
This textbook offers comprehensive coverage of classic, contemporary, and emerging topics in social psychology. The focus is on underlying, unifying principles that operate across topics, rather than treatment of each topic in isolation, a focus that reflects the increasingly cross-disciplinary developments within and beyond psychology. An emphasis on research carried out in different parts of the world and a sensitivity to cross-cultural perspectives highlight the internationalization of the field in recent years. In addition, the text offers real-world applications of scientific principles to areas such as marketing, law, education, and health. Throughout, the discussion conceptually integrates the pervasive impact of social groups on all aspects of social behavior.
Extensive feedback from reviews of prior editions has helped make this third edition comprehensive, contemporary, and relevant to social psychology students' and instructors' needs. Effective and helpful pedagogical features include chapter summaries, margin glossaries, tables, graphs, and photographs.
An attractive student-friendly format, and a narrative by two leading scholars that is both lively and rigorous, make this text one of the most respected and acclaimed on the market.
This new edition is supported by an extensive online Social Psychology Student Learning Program (SocSLP) and CD-ROM based InstructorResources, both of which are free of charge to qualifying adopters.
Annotation
Disc. basic science, research methods; social perception, cognitive processes, social influence, social relations.
Booknews
The new edition of an introductory textbook for undergraduate audiences. Smith (psychological sciences, Purdue U.) and Mackie (psychology and communication, U. of California) base the text on the idea that the intertwining of social processes and cognitive processes is an essential tension of human social behavior. Chapters are devoted to social self perception, social influence, and social relations. Annotation c. Book News, Inc., Portland, OR (booknews.com)
More Reviews and RecommendationsFrom the Publisher
Social Psychology, 3rd Edition provides the only conceptually integrated undergraduate introduction to social psychology, offering a clear synthesis of the cognitive and social, and individual and group influences that shape social behavior.
This textbook offers comprehensive coverage of classic, contemporary, and emerging topics in social psychology. The focus is on underlying, unifying principles that operate across topics, rather than treatment of each topic in isolation, a focus that reflects the increasingly cross-disciplinary developments within and beyond psychology. An emphasis on research carried out in different parts of the world and a sensitivity to cross-cultural perspectives highlight the internationalization of the field in recent years. In addition, the text offers real-world applications of scientific principles to areas such as marketing, law, education, and health. Throughout, the discussion conceptually integrates the pervasive impact of social groups on all aspects of social behavior.
Extensive feedback from reviews of prior editions has helped make this third edition comprehensive, contemporary, and relevant to social psychology students' and instructors' needs. Effective and helpful pedagogical features include chapter summaries, margin glossaries, tables, graphs, and photographs.
An attractive student-friendly format, and a narrative by two leading scholars that is both lively and rigorous, make this text one of the most respected and acclaimed on the market.
This new edition is supported by an extensive online Social Psychology Student Learning Program (SocSLP) and CD-ROM based InstructorResources, both of which are free of charge to qualifying adopters.
Booknews
The new edition of an introductory textbook for undergraduate audiences. Smith (psychological sciences, Purdue U.) and Mackie (psychology and communication, U. of California) base the text on the idea that the intertwining of social processes and cognitive processes is an essential tension of human social behavior. Chapters are devoted to social self perception, social influence, and social relations. Annotation c. Book News, Inc., Portland, OR (booknews.com)
Product Details
- Pub. Date: February 2006
- Publisher: Taylor & Francis, Inc.
- Format: Textbook Paperback, 657pp
- ISBN-13: 9781841694092
- ISBN: 1841694096
- Edition Number: 3
- Edition Description: REV
Table of Contents
Preface xix
How To Use This Book xxviii
What Is Social Psychology? 3
A Definition of Social Psychology 5
The Scientific Study... 5
...of the Effects of Social and Cognitive Processes... 5
...on the Way Individuals Perceive, Influence, and Relate to Others 7
Historical Trends and Current Themes in Social Psychology 8
Social Psychology Becomes an Empirical Science 8
Social Psychology Splits From General Psychology Over What Causes Behavior 9
The Rise of Nazism Shapes the Development of Social Psychology 10
Growth and Integration 12
Integration of Cognitive and Social Processes 12
Integration of Basic Science and Social Problems 13
How the Approach of This Book Reflects an Integrative Perspective 14
Two Fundamental Axioms of Social Psychology 15
Construction of Reality 15
Pervasiveness of Social Influence 16
Three Motivational Principles 17
People Strive for Mastery 17
People Seek Connectedness 17
People Value "Me and Mine" 17
Three Processing Principles 18
Conservatism: Established Views Are Slow to Change 18
Accessibility: Accessible Information Has the Most Impact 18
Superficiality Versus Depth: People Can Process Superficially or in Depth 19
Common Processes, Diverse Behaviors 20
Plan of the Book 20
Summary 22
Asking and Answering Research Questions 25
A Note to the Student on How to Use This Chapter 26
Research Questions and the Role of Theory 27
Origins of Research Questions 27
What is a Scientific Theory? 27
Testing Theories: From Theory to Research 29
Construct Validity and Approaches to Measurement 30
Threats to Construct Validity 31
Ensuring Construct Validity 31
Internal Validity and Types of Research Design 33
Threats to Internal Validity 33
Ensuring Internal Validity 34
Experimental Versus Nonexperimental Research Designs 36
External Validity and Research Populations and Settings 36
Generalizing to Versus Generalizing Across People and Places 37
External Validity and Research Participants 39
Cultures and External Validity 39
External Validity and Laboratory Research 40
External Validity and Nonlaboratory Research 41
Ensuring External Validity 42
Evaluating Theories: The Bottom Line 43
The Importance of Replication 44
Competition With Other Theories 45
Getting the Bias Out 46
The Role of Ethics and Values in Research 47
Being Fair to Participants 48
The Use of Deception in Research 50
Being Helpful to Society 52
Concluding Comments 53
Summary 54
Perceiving Individuals 57
Forming First Impressions: Cues, Interpretations, and Inferences 58
The Raw Materials of First Impressions 59
Impressions From Physical Appearance 59
Physical Appearance in the Workplace 60
Impressions from Nonverbal Communication 61
Detection of Deception 61
Lie Detection in the Legal System 62
Impressions from Familiarity 62
Impressions from Environments 63
Impressions from Behavior 63
Which Cues Capture Attention? 63
Interpreting Cues 64
The Role of Associations in Interpretation 65
The Role of Accessibility in Interpretation 65
Accessibility from Concurrent Activation of Knowledge 66
Accessibility from Recent Activation 67
Accessibility from Frequent Activation: Chronic Accessibility 68
Accessibility and Sexism in a Job Interview 68
Characterizing the Behaving Person: Correspondent Inferences 69
When Is a Correspondent Inference Justified? 70
The Correspondence Bias: People Are What They Do 70
Correspondence Bias in the Workplace 71
Limits on the Correspondence Bias 71
Beyond First Impressions: Systematic Processing 73
Causal Attributions 73
Attributions to Accessible Causes 73
Attributions to Salient Causes 74
Attributions Based on Covariation Information 75
Cultural Differences in Attributions 75
Using Attributions to Correct First Impressions 77
Putting It All Together: Forming Complex Impressions 78
Integrating Trait Information 79
Integrating Evaluations 79
The Accuracy of Considered Impressions 80
Motivation to Be Accurate 80
Motives Besides Accuracy 81
Awareness of Bias as a Motive 82
The Impact of Impressions: Using, Defending, and Changing Impressions 82
Impressions and Judgments 83
Superficial Processing: Using a Single Attribute 84
Systematic Processing: Integrating Multiple Factors 84
Defending Impressions 85
Impressions Shape Interpretations 85
Impressions Resist Rebuttal 85
Perseverance in the Courtroom 86
Selectively Seeking Impression-Consistent Behavior 86
Creating Impression-Consistent Behavior: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 87
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in the Classroom and the Workplace 88
Limits on the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 88
Dealing With Inconsistent Information 89
Reconciling Inconsistencies 89
Integrating Inconsistencies 90
Altering Impressions: Is Fundamental Change Possible? 90
Concluding Comments 91
Summary 93
The Self 95
Constructing the Self-Concept: What We Know About Ourselves 96
Sources of the Self-Concept 96
Drawing Inferences from Our Behavior 96
Drawing Inferences from Thoughts and Feelings 98
Effects Of Other People's Reactions 98
Social Comparison 99
Learning About Self and Others: The Same or Different? 100
Differences in Amount of Knowledge 100
Differences in Attribution 101
Similarities in Accuracy 102
Multiple Selves 102
Putting It All Together: Constructing a Coherent Self-Concept 103
Coherence Through Limited Accessibility 103
Coherence Through Selective Memory 104
Coherence Through Attribution 104
Coherence Though Selecting a Few Key Traits 104
Cultural Differences in the Self-Concept 104
Constructing Self-Esteem: How We Feel About Ourselves 107
Balancing Accurate Self-Knowledge and Self-Enhancement 107
Evaluating Personal Experiences: Some Pain but Mainly Gain 109
Biased Memories: Recalling Successes 109
Social Comparisons: Better or Worse Than Others? 110
Biased Comparisons: Definitely Better Than Others 111
Why Self-Enhance? 112
Self-Esteem in Cultural Context 113
Effects of the Self: Processes of Self-Regulation 114
The Self and Thoughts About Ourselves and Others 114
The Self and Emotions; For Me or Against Me? 115
How Do Emotions Arise? 116
Appraisals, Emotions, Bodily Responses: All Together Now 118
The Self in Action: Regulating Behavior 118
Negative Effects of Self-Discrepancies 120
Temptations and Other Threats to Self-Regulation 121
Taking Accounts of Other People's Standards 122
Self-Expression: I Am What I Am 122
Self-Presentation: I Am What You Want Me To Be 122
From Self to Behavior, and Back Again 123
Personality Differences in Behavior: Self-Monitoring 124
Defending the Self: Coping With Stresses, Inconsistencies, and Failures 125
Threats to the Well-Being of the Self 125
Emotional and Physical Effects of Threat 126
Threat and Appraisals of Control 127
Control and Depression 127
Defending Against Threat: Emotion-Focused Coping 128
Escaping from Threat: Shipping Out 129
Downplaying Threat: Accentuate the Positive, Eliminate the Negative 129
Working Through Threat: Self-Expression 130
Women Under Stress: Tend and Befriend 131
Attacking Threat Head-On: Problem-Focused Coping 131
Making Excuses: It's Not My Fault 131
Self-Handicapping 131
Taking Control of the Problem 132
Control and Life Goals 133
Solving the Problem: Rising to the Challenge 133
How to Cope? 134
Self-Esteem as a Resource for Coping 134
Controllability and Coping 135
Concluding Comments 136
Summary 137
Perceiving Groups 141
Targets of Prejudice: Social Groups 143
Social Categorization: Dividing the World into Social Groups 144
Forming Impressions of Groups: Establishing Stereotypes 145
The Content of Stereotypes 146
Stereotypes Include Many Types of Characteristics 146
Stereotypes Can Be Either Positive or Negative 146
Stereotypes Can Be Accurate or Inaccurate 147
Seeking the Motives behind Stereotyping 149
Motives for Forming Stereotypes: Mastery through Summarizing Personal Experiences 149
People Notice Some Members More Than Others 150
Some Information Attracts More Attention Than Other Information 151
Social Roles Trigger Correspondence Biases 152
Social Roles and Gender Stereotypes 153
Between-Group Interactions Generate Emotion 154
Learning Stereotypes from the Media 156
Gender Stereotypes and the Media 156
Motives for Forming Stereotypes: Connectedness to Others 157
Learning Stereotypes From Others 157
Social Communication of Stereotypes 158
Motives for Forming Stereotypes: Justifying Inequalities 158
Using Stereotypes: From Preconceptions to Prejudice 160
Activation of Stereotypes 161
What Activates Stereotypes? 161
Stereotypes Can Be Activated Automatically 162
Feelings About Groups Can Be Activated Automatically 163
Measuring Stereotypes and Prejudice 163
Impact of Stereotypes on Judgments and Actions 166
Less Capacity, More Stereotyping 167
More Emotion, More Stereotyping 168
More Power, More Stereotyping 169
Trying to Overcome Stereotype Effects 169
Suppressing Stereotypic Thoughts 170
Correcting Stereotypic Judgments 170
Activating Counterstereotypic Information 171
Beyond Simple Activation: Effects of Stereotypes on Considered Judgments 171
Seeking Evidence to Confirm the Stereotype: Just Tell Me Where to Look 172
Interpreting Evidence to Fit the Stereotype: Well, If You Look at It That Way 173
Comparing Information to Stereotypic Standards: That Looks Good, for a Group Member 173
Constraining Evidence To Fit the Stereotype: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 174
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies in School and at Work 174
Changing Stereotypes: Overcoming Bias to Reduce Prejudice 176
Barriers to Stereotype Change 176
Explaining Away Inconsistent Information 176
Compartmentalizing Inconsistent Information 177
Differentiating Atypical Group Members: Contrast Effects 177
Overcoming Stereotype Defenses: The Kind of Contact That Works 178
Repeated Inconsistency: An Antidote for "Explaining Away" 178
Widespread Inconsistency: An Antidote for Subtyping 179
Being Typical As Well As Inconsistent: An Antidote for Contrast Effects 179
Personal Relationships: Combining the Conditions that Make Contact Effective 179
Intergroup Contact in the Neighborhood 180
Concluding Comments 181
Summary 183
Social Identity 187
Categorizing Oneself as a Group Member 189
Learning About Our Groups 189
Accessibility of Group Memberships 190
Direct Reminders of Membership 190
Presence of Out-Group Members 191
Being a Minority 191
Conflict or Rivalry 191
Cultural Differences in the Importance of Group Membership 192
Personality Differences in Group Membership Importance 193
Me, You, and Them: Effects of Social Categorization 194
"I" Becomes "We": Social Categorization and the Self 194
Seeing Oneself as a Group Member 195
Accessibility of Gender Identity in the Classroom 195
Liking Ourselves: Social Identity and Self-Esteem 195
Social Identity and Emotions 196
Balancing Individuality and Connectedness 196
Others Become "We": Social Categorization and the In-Group 197
Perceiving Fellow In-Group Members 197
Liking In-Group Members: To Be Us Is To Be Lovable 198
Giving In-Group Members the Language Advantage 198
Treating the In-Group Right: Justice and Altruism 199
Others Become "They": Social Categorization and the Out-Group 200
Perceiving the Out-Group as Homogeneous: "They're All Alike!" 201
Out-Group Homogeneity in the Legal System 203
Effects of Mere Categorization: Discrimination Favoring the In-Group 204
Discrimination and Social Identity 204
Effects of Perceived Disadvantage: Let's Compete With Them 206
Effects of Extreme Threat: They Threaten Us, So Let's Attack First 206
Moral Exclusion 208
When Group Memberships Are Negative 209
Effects of Stigmatized Group Memberships 210
Effects on Performance 210
Effects on Self-Esteem 212
Defending Individual Self-Esteem 212
Using Attributions to Advantage 212
Attributional Ambiguity in the Workplace 214
Making the Most of Intragroup Comparisons 215
Women's Self-Esteem: What's So Special About Gender? 215
Individual Mobility: Escaping Negative Group Membership 216
Disidentification: Putting the Group at a Psychological Distance 216
Dissociation: Putting the Group at a Physical Distance 217
Social Creativity: Redefining Group Membership as Positive 218
Social Change: Changing the Intergroup Context 219
Social Competition 219
Recategorization: Changing the Definition of In-Group 220
"Color-Blindness" or Valuing Group Differences? 221
One Goal, Many Strategies 222
Concluding Comments 224
Summary 225
Attitudes and Attitude Change 229
Attitudes and Their Origins 230
Measuring Attitudes 230
Attitude Formation: Why and How? 232
Why Attitudes Form 233
Cultural Differences in Attitude Function 234
The Building Blocks of Attitude 234
Putting It All Together 235
Linking Attitudes to Their Objects 237
Superficial and Systematic Routes to Persuasion: From Snap Judgments to Considered Opinions 238
Superficial Processing: Persuasion Shortcuts 238
Attitudes by Association 239
Moods as Heuristic Cues: If I feel Good, I Must Like It 240
The Familiarity Heuristic: Familiarity Makes the Heart Grow Fonder 241
The Attractiveness Heuristic: Agreeing With Those We Like 242
The Expertise Heuristic: Agreeing with Those Who Know 242
The Message-Length Heuristic: Length Equals Strength 244
Systematic Processing of Persuasive Communications 245
Processing Message Content 246
The Consequences of Systematic Processing 248
Superficial and Systematic Processing: Which Strategy, When? 249
How Motivation Influences Superficial and Systematic Processing 250
How Capacity Influences Superficial and Systematic Processing 252
The Impact of Capacity on Heeding Health-Related Messages 253
How Personality Differences Influence Superficial and Systematic Processing 254
How Moods and Emotions Influence Superficial and Systematic Processing 256
Defending Attitudes: Resisting Persuasion 258
Gathering Defenses: Forewarning, Forearming, and Arguing Back 259
Inoculation: Practice Can Be the Best Resistance Medicine 260
Inoculation and Advertising Effectiveness 261
Subliminal Persuasion 262
How to Resist Subliminal Influence 264
Concluding Comments 266
Summary 267
Attitudes and Behavior 269
Changing Attitudes with Actions 270
From Action to Attitude via Superficial Processing 271
Self-Perception Theory 273
The Foot-in-the-Door Technique: Would You Mind Doing Me A Small Favor? 273
Self-Perception Processes and Volunteering 275
Personality Differences and the Foot-in-the-Door Technique 275
From Actions to Attitudes Superficially 275
Cognitive Dissonance: Changing Attitudes to Justify Behavior 277
The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance 277
Justifying Attitude-Discrepant Behavior: I Have My Reasons! 280
Justifying Effort: I Suffered For It, So I Like It 282
Justifying Decisions: Of Course I was Right! 283
The Processing Payoff: Justifying Inconsistent Actions Creates Persistent Attitudes 284
Dissonance Processes and Resisting Media Influence 285
Alternatives to Attitude Change 285
Cultural Difference and Dissonance 287
Guiding Actions with Attitudes 290
How Attitudes Guide Behavior 291
Attitudes Guide Behavior Without Much Thought 292
Attitudes Guide Behavior Through Considered Intentions 293
When Do Attitudes Influence Action? 296
Attitude Accessibility: Attitudes Must Come to Mind 296
Attitude Accessibility in Clinical Settings 298
Attitude Compatibility: The Right Attitude Must Come to Mind 299
Implicit and Explicit Attitudes as Guides for Behavior 300
When Attitudes Are Not Enough 301
Concluding Comments 303
Summary 304
Groups, Norms, and Conformity 307
Conformity to Social Norms 309
The Formation of Social Norms 309
Public Versus Private Conformity 312
Conformity and False Confessions in the Interrogation Room 313
Conformity and Culture 314
The Dual Functions of Conformity to Norms: Mastery and Connectedness 314
Expecting Consensus 315
The Dual Functions of Conformity to Norms 315
Norms Provide Mastery Insurance 315
Norms Give Us Feelings of Connectedness 317
Mastery, Connectedness, or Both? 318
Whose Consensus? The Impact of Reference Groups 319
How Groups Form Norms: Processes of Social Influence 322
Group Compromise: Taking the Middle Ground 322
Group Polarization: Going to Normative Extremes 322
Polarization in the Jury Room 324
Explaining Polarized Norm Formation 324
Superficial Processing: Relying on Others' Positions 325
Systematic Processing: Attending to Both Positions and Arguments 326
Conformity Pressure: Undermining True Consensus 328
When Consensus Seeking Goes Awry 329
Consensus Without Consideration: Unthinking Reliance on Consensus 330
Consensus Without Independence: Contamination 330
Consensus Without Acceptance: Public Conformity 332
Pluralistic Ignorance and Health Risk Behavior 334
Consensus Seeking at Its Worst: Groupthink 334
Causes and Consequences of Groupthink 335
Remedies for Faulty Consensus Seeking 337
Minority Influence: The Value of Dissent 338
Successful Minority Influence 338
Offering an Alternative Consensus 338
Negotiating Similarity and Difference 339
Promoting Systematic Processing 341
Minority Influence in the Courtroom 343
Processes of Minority and Majority Influence 344
Beyond Minority Influence: Using Norms to Strengthen Consensus 345
Concluding Comments 346
Summary 347
Norms and Behavior 351
Norms: Effective Guides for Social Behavior 353
How Norms Guide Behavior 353
Norms and the Environment 354
Why Norms Guide Behavior So Effectively 355
Enforcement: Do It, Or Else 355
Internalization: It's Right and Proper, So I Do It 356
Consensus and Support: We're All Doing It, So I'll Do It Too 356
Frequent Activation: It Came to Mind (Again), So I Do It (Again) 357
Norms in the Workplace 357
Deindividuation: Making Group Norms More Salient 358
The Norm of Reciprocity: Treating Others as They Treat You 360
Returning Favors 361
The Norm of Reciprocity for Concessions 362
The Door-in-the-Face Technique 362
Reciprocity of Concessions on the Salesfloor 364
The Norm of Commitment: Keeping Your Promises 365
The Low-Ball Technique 366
Long-Term Consequences of Commitment 367
The Norm of Obedience: Submitting to Authority 369
Milgram's Studies of Obedience 370
Attempting to Explain Obedience: Was it the Time, the Place, the People? 371
Obedience in the Workplace 372
The Norm of Obedience to Authority 373
Authority Must Be Legitimate 373
Authority Must Accept Responsibility 374
The Norm of Obedience Must Be Accessible 375
Incompatible Norms Must Be Suppressed 376
Maintaining and Escalating Obedience 377
Normative Trade-Offs: The Pluses and Minuses of Obedience 378
Rebellion and Resistance: Fighting Back 379
Reactance: Enough is Enough 380
Systematic Processing: Thinking Things Through 381
Using Norms Against Norms 383
Putting it All Together: Multiple Guides for Behavior 384
Both Attitudes and Norms Influence Behavior 385
The Direct Route 385
The Indirect Route 385
When Attitudes and Norms Conflict: Accessibility Determines Influence 387
Concluding Comments 389
Summary 390
Liking and Loving 393
Initial Attraction 394
Physical Attractiveness 394
Effects of Physical Attractiveness 395
Who Cares About Physical Attractiveness? 395
Positive Interaction 397
Interaction Spells Liking...Most of the Time 397
Why Interaction Increases Liking 398
What About Negative Interaction? 398
Birds of a Feather: Liking Similar Others 399
Liking, Similarity, and Interaction: Mutually Reinforcing Processes 400
From Acquaintance to Friend: Relationship Development 401
Exchanges of Rewards: What's In It for Me? 402
Self-Disclosure 403
Effects of Self-Disclosure 403
Close Relationships 404
Research on Close Relationships 405
Cognitive Interdependence: The Partner Becomes Part of the Self 406
Insider Versus Outsider Perspectives on Relationships 407
Behavioral Interdependence: Transformations in Exchange 408
Changes in the Distribution of Rewards 408
Attributions in Close Relationships: It's The Thought That Counts 409
Affective Interdependence: Intimacy and Commitment 410
Psychological Intimacy 410
Commitment 411
Types of People, Types of Relationships 413
Attachment Styles 413
Differing Theories About Relationships 415
Gender Differences in Relationships 416
Relationships in Cultural Perspective 416
Effects of Relationships 417
When Things Go Wrong: Intimacy, Social Support, and Health 417
Gender and Social Support 418
When Things Go Right: Capitalizing on Positive Events 419
Romantic Love and Sexuality 419
Passionate Feelings 419
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior 422
Sex in the Context of a Relationship 423
When Relationships Go Wrong 425
Interdependence and Conflicts: Seeds of Trouble 425
Resources for Handling Conflict: Relationship Maintenance 426
Idealization of the Partner 426
Commitment 427
Attachment Styles 427
Conflict Processes 428
Responding to Negative Acts 428
Forgiveness 429
Attribution: You Did It Because You Don't Love Me 429
Cycles of Conflict 430
Handling Conflicts in Everyday Life 430
Jealousy 431
Declining Intimacy and Commitment 431
Relationship Conflict and Social Problems 432
Break-Up and Aftermath 432
The Break-Up: Your Fault, My Decision 432
After the Break-Up: Grief and Distress for Two 433
Till Death Do Us Part 434
Loneliness 434
Unrequited Love 434
Concluding Comments 435
Summary 436
Interaction in Groups 439
The Mere Presence of Others: The Effects of Minimal Interdependence 440
Social Facilitation: Improvement and Impairment 440
Explaining Social Facilitation 441
Evaluation Apprehension 442
Distraction 443
Social Facilitation in the Workplace: Monitoring and Job Performance 444
Crowding: The Presence of Lots of Others 444
Crowding and the Urban Environment 444
Performance in Face-to-Face Groups: Interaction and Interdependence 445
How Groups Change: Stages of Group Development 446
Group Socialization: Becoming a Member of the Group 447
Group Development: Coming Together, Falling Apart 448
Time and Group Development 449
Getting the Job Done: Group Performance 450
Forms of Task Interdependence 450
Gains and Losses in Group Performance 451
Losses from Decreased Motivation: Social Loafing 452
Losses from Poor Coordination 454
Poor Coordination in the Workplace 454
Cures for Group Performance Losses 455
Leadership 458
What Do Leaders Do? 458
Leadership Effectiveness: Person or Situation? 459
Coaching Leadership in Youth Sports 460
Who Becomes Leader? 461
Stereotypes and Leadership 462
Putting the Group first: Transformational Leadership 464
The Dark Side of Leadership 465
Group Communication 466
Mastery- and Connectedness-Focused Communication 466
Patterns of Communication 466
Technology and Communication 467
The Computer as a Group Member 469
Concluding Comments 470
Summary 471
Aggression and Conflict 473
Aggression, Conflict, and Human Nature 474
Defining Conflict and Aggression 474
Origins of Aggression 475
Interpersonal Aggression 476
Studying Aggression 476
What Triggers Aggression? 477
Instrumental Aggression: Counting Material Costs and Rewards 478
Hostile Aggression: Emotional Responses to Provocations 479
Personality Differences in Responses to Provocations 479
Hostile Aggression: The Role of Negative Feelings 480
Norms Promoting and Restraining Aggression 480
Norms Promoting Aggression 480
Cultural Cues to Aggression 482
Models of Aggression 483
Aggressive Models in the Media 483
Norms Restraining Aggression 485
To Hurt or Not to Hurt: Putting It All Together 485
Intergroup Conflict 488
Sources of Intergroup Conflict: The Battle for Riches and Respect 489
Realistic Conflict Theory: Getting the Goods 489
Relative Deprivation: When Is Enough Enough? 490
Social Competition: Getting a Little Respect 491
The Special Competitiveness of Groups: Groups Often Value Respect Over Riches 492
Escalating Conflict: Communication and Interaction That Make Things Worse 492
Talking to the In-Group: Polarization and Commitment 492
The Special Competitiveness of Groups: When Conflict Arises, Groups Close Ranks 493
Talking to the Out-Group: Back Off, Or Else! 493
Threat and Deterrence in International Affairs 495
Coalition Formation: Escalation as Others Choose Sides 496
Perceptions in Conflict: What Else Could You Expect From Them? 496
Polarized Perceptions of In-Group and Out-Group 496
Biased Attributions for Behavior 497
The Impact of Emotion and Arousal: More Heat, Less Light 498
The Special Competitiveness of Groups: People Expect Groups to be Supercompetitive, So They React in Kind 499
"Final Solutions": Eliminating the Out-Group 500
The Special Competitiveness of Groups: Groups Offer Social Support for Competitiveness 501
Final Solutions in History 502
Resolving Conflict and Reducing Aggression 503
Altering Perceptions and Reactions 504
Minimize Cues for Aggression 504
Interpret, and Interpret Again 504
Promote Empathy With Others 504
Reducing Aggression in Society 505
Resolving Conflict Through Negotiation 505
Types of Solutions 505
Achieving Solutions: The Negotiation Process 507
Building Trust 507
Trust and the Norm of Reciprocity 508
GRIT and International Conflicts 508
Negotiating Across Cultural Lines 508
Mediation and Arbitration: Bringing in Third Parties 509
Intergroup Cooperation: Changing Social Identity 509
Superordinate Goals 510
Why Does Intergroup Cooperation Work? 511
Concluding Comments 513
Summary 514
Helping and Cooperation 517
When Do People Help? 518
Is Help Needed and Deserved? 519
Noticing Need 519
Judging Deservingness 520
Should I Help? 521
Is Helping Up to Me? Diffusion of Responsibility 521
When Norms Make Helping Appropriate 522
When Norms Make Helping Inappropriate 523
Why Do People Help? Helping for Mastery and Connectedness 524
Biologically Driven Helping: Is Helping in Our Genes? 524
Helping for Mastery: The Personal Rewards and Costs of Helping 526
Rewards and Costs of Helping 526
Emotional Rewards of Helping 527
Is Helping Pure Egoism? 528
Helping for Connectedness: Empathy and Altruism 529
Helping for Connectedness: Social Identification and Cooperation 532
Social Dilemmas: Self-Interest Versus Group Interest 532
Behavior in Social Dilemmas 534
Structural Solutions in Social Dilemmas 535
Solving Social Dilemmas: Social Identification and Cooperation 536
Role of Superficial or Systematic Processing in Helping and Cooperation 540
The Impact of Processing 540
Spontaneous Helping, Superficial Processing 540
Planned Helping, Systematic Processing 541
Volunteering in the AIDS Epidemic 542
Helping in Organizations 543
Personality Differences in Helping 544
Prosocial Behavior in Society 545
Help that Helps; Help that Hurts 545
Increasing Prosocial Behavior in Society 546
Concluding Comments 548
Summary 550
Epilogue 553
Core Principles of Social Psychology 553
How the Principles Interrelate 555
An Invitation to Social Psychology 556
Photograph Credits 557
Glossary 559
References 563
Author Index 629
Subject Index 645
How To Use This Book xxviii
What Is Social Psychology? 3
A Definition of Social Psychology 5
The Scientific Study... 5
...of the Effects of Social and Cognitive Processes... 5
...on the Way Individuals Perceive, Influence, and Relate to Others 7
Historical Trends and Current Themes in Social Psychology 8
Social Psychology Becomes an Empirical Science 8
Social Psychology Splits From General Psychology Over What Causes Behavior 9
The Rise of Nazism Shapes the Development of Social Psychology 10
Growth and Integration 12
Integration of Cognitive and Social Processes 12
Integration of Basic Science and Social Problems 13
How the Approach of This Book Reflects an Integrative Perspective 14
Two Fundamental Axioms of Social Psychology 15
Construction of Reality 15
Pervasiveness of Social Influence 16
Three Motivational Principles 17
People Strive for Mastery 17
People Seek Connectedness 17
People Value "Me and Mine" 17
Three Processing Principles 18
Conservatism: Established Views Are Slow to Change 18
Accessibility: Accessible Information Has the Most Impact 18
Superficiality Versus Depth: People Can Process Superficially or in Depth 19
Common Processes, Diverse Behaviors 20
Plan of the Book 20
Summary 22
Asking and Answering Research Questions 25
A Note to the Student on How to Use This Chapter 26
Research Questions and the Role of Theory 27
Origins of Research Questions 27
What is a Scientific Theory? 27
Testing Theories: From Theory to Research 29
Construct Validity and Approaches to Measurement 30
Threats to Construct Validity 31
Ensuring Construct Validity 31
Internal Validity and Types of Research Design 33
Threats to Internal Validity 33
Ensuring Internal Validity 34
Experimental Versus Nonexperimental Research Designs 36
External Validity and Research Populations and Settings 36
Generalizing to Versus Generalizing Across People and Places 37
External Validity and Research Participants 39
Cultures and External Validity 39
External Validity and Laboratory Research 40
External Validity and Nonlaboratory Research 41
Ensuring External Validity 42
Evaluating Theories: The Bottom Line 43
The Importance of Replication 44
Competition With Other Theories 45
Getting the Bias Out 46
The Role of Ethics and Values in Research 47
Being Fair to Participants 48
The Use of Deception in Research 50
Being Helpful to Society 52
Concluding Comments 53
Summary 54
Perceiving Individuals 57
Forming First Impressions: Cues, Interpretations, and Inferences 58
The Raw Materials of First Impressions 59
Impressions From Physical Appearance 59
Physical Appearance in the Workplace 60
Impressions from Nonverbal Communication 61
Detection of Deception 61
Lie Detection in the Legal System 62
Impressions from Familiarity 62
Impressions from Environments 63
Impressions from Behavior 63
Which Cues Capture Attention? 63
Interpreting Cues 64
The Role of Associations in Interpretation 65
The Role of Accessibility in Interpretation 65
Accessibility from Concurrent Activation of Knowledge 66
Accessibility from Recent Activation 67
Accessibility from Frequent Activation: Chronic Accessibility 68
Accessibility and Sexism in a Job Interview 68
Characterizing the Behaving Person: Correspondent Inferences 69
When Is a Correspondent Inference Justified? 70
The Correspondence Bias: People Are What They Do 70
Correspondence Bias in the Workplace 71
Limits on the Correspondence Bias 71
Beyond First Impressions: Systematic Processing 73
Causal Attributions 73
Attributions to Accessible Causes 73
Attributions to Salient Causes 74
Attributions Based on Covariation Information 75
Cultural Differences in Attributions 75
Using Attributions to Correct First Impressions 77
Putting It All Together: Forming Complex Impressions 78
Integrating Trait Information 79
Integrating Evaluations 79
The Accuracy of Considered Impressions 80
Motivation to Be Accurate 80
Motives Besides Accuracy 81
Awareness of Bias as a Motive 82
The Impact of Impressions: Using, Defending, and Changing Impressions 82
Impressions and Judgments 83
Superficial Processing: Using a Single Attribute 84
Systematic Processing: Integrating Multiple Factors 84
Defending Impressions 85
Impressions Shape Interpretations 85
Impressions Resist Rebuttal 85
Perseverance in the Courtroom 86
Selectively Seeking Impression-Consistent Behavior 86
Creating Impression-Consistent Behavior: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 87
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in the Classroom and the Workplace 88
Limits on the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 88
Dealing With Inconsistent Information 89
Reconciling Inconsistencies 89
Integrating Inconsistencies 90
Altering Impressions: Is Fundamental Change Possible? 90
Concluding Comments 91
Summary 93
The Self 95
Constructing the Self-Concept: What We Know About Ourselves 96
Sources of the Self-Concept 96
Drawing Inferences from Our Behavior 96
Drawing Inferences from Thoughts and Feelings 98
Effects Of Other People's Reactions 98
Social Comparison 99
Learning About Self and Others: The Same or Different? 100
Differences in Amount of Knowledge 100
Differences in Attribution 101
Similarities in Accuracy 102
Multiple Selves 102
Putting It All Together: Constructing a Coherent Self-Concept 103
Coherence Through Limited Accessibility 103
Coherence Through Selective Memory 104
Coherence Through Attribution 104
Coherence Though Selecting a Few Key Traits 104
Cultural Differences in the Self-Concept 104
Constructing Self-Esteem: How We Feel About Ourselves 107
Balancing Accurate Self-Knowledge and Self-Enhancement 107
Evaluating Personal Experiences: Some Pain but Mainly Gain 109
Biased Memories: Recalling Successes 109
Social Comparisons: Better or Worse Than Others? 110
Biased Comparisons: Definitely Better Than Others 111
Why Self-Enhance? 112
Self-Esteem in Cultural Context 113
Effects of the Self: Processes of Self-Regulation 114
The Self and Thoughts About Ourselves and Others 114
The Self and Emotions; For Me or Against Me? 115
How Do Emotions Arise? 116
Appraisals, Emotions, Bodily Responses: All Together Now 118
The Self in Action: Regulating Behavior 118
Negative Effects of Self-Discrepancies 120
Temptations and Other Threats to Self-Regulation 121
Taking Accounts of Other People's Standards 122
Self-Expression: I Am What I Am 122
Self-Presentation: I Am What You Want Me To Be 122
From Self to Behavior, and Back Again 123
Personality Differences in Behavior: Self-Monitoring 124
Defending the Self: Coping With Stresses, Inconsistencies, and Failures 125
Threats to the Well-Being of the Self 125
Emotional and Physical Effects of Threat 126
Threat and Appraisals of Control 127
Control and Depression 127
Defending Against Threat: Emotion-Focused Coping 128
Escaping from Threat: Shipping Out 129
Downplaying Threat: Accentuate the Positive, Eliminate the Negative 129
Working Through Threat: Self-Expression 130
Women Under Stress: Tend and Befriend 131
Attacking Threat Head-On: Problem-Focused Coping 131
Making Excuses: It's Not My Fault 131
Self-Handicapping 131
Taking Control of the Problem 132
Control and Life Goals 133
Solving the Problem: Rising to the Challenge 133
How to Cope? 134
Self-Esteem as a Resource for Coping 134
Controllability and Coping 135
Concluding Comments 136
Summary 137
Perceiving Groups 141
Targets of Prejudice: Social Groups 143
Social Categorization: Dividing the World into Social Groups 144
Forming Impressions of Groups: Establishing Stereotypes 145
The Content of Stereotypes 146
Stereotypes Include Many Types of Characteristics 146
Stereotypes Can Be Either Positive or Negative 146
Stereotypes Can Be Accurate or Inaccurate 147
Seeking the Motives behind Stereotyping 149
Motives for Forming Stereotypes: Mastery through Summarizing Personal Experiences 149
People Notice Some Members More Than Others 150
Some Information Attracts More Attention Than Other Information 151
Social Roles Trigger Correspondence Biases 152
Social Roles and Gender Stereotypes 153
Between-Group Interactions Generate Emotion 154
Learning Stereotypes from the Media 156
Gender Stereotypes and the Media 156
Motives for Forming Stereotypes: Connectedness to Others 157
Learning Stereotypes From Others 157
Social Communication of Stereotypes 158
Motives for Forming Stereotypes: Justifying Inequalities 158
Using Stereotypes: From Preconceptions to Prejudice 160
Activation of Stereotypes 161
What Activates Stereotypes? 161
Stereotypes Can Be Activated Automatically 162
Feelings About Groups Can Be Activated Automatically 163
Measuring Stereotypes and Prejudice 163
Impact of Stereotypes on Judgments and Actions 166
Less Capacity, More Stereotyping 167
More Emotion, More Stereotyping 168
More Power, More Stereotyping 169
Trying to Overcome Stereotype Effects 169
Suppressing Stereotypic Thoughts 170
Correcting Stereotypic Judgments 170
Activating Counterstereotypic Information 171
Beyond Simple Activation: Effects of Stereotypes on Considered Judgments 171
Seeking Evidence to Confirm the Stereotype: Just Tell Me Where to Look 172
Interpreting Evidence to Fit the Stereotype: Well, If You Look at It That Way 173
Comparing Information to Stereotypic Standards: That Looks Good, for a Group Member 173
Constraining Evidence To Fit the Stereotype: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 174
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies in School and at Work 174
Changing Stereotypes: Overcoming Bias to Reduce Prejudice 176
Barriers to Stereotype Change 176
Explaining Away Inconsistent Information 176
Compartmentalizing Inconsistent Information 177
Differentiating Atypical Group Members: Contrast Effects 177
Overcoming Stereotype Defenses: The Kind of Contact That Works 178
Repeated Inconsistency: An Antidote for "Explaining Away" 178
Widespread Inconsistency: An Antidote for Subtyping 179
Being Typical As Well As Inconsistent: An Antidote for Contrast Effects 179
Personal Relationships: Combining the Conditions that Make Contact Effective 179
Intergroup Contact in the Neighborhood 180
Concluding Comments 181
Summary 183
Social Identity 187
Categorizing Oneself as a Group Member 189
Learning About Our Groups 189
Accessibility of Group Memberships 190
Direct Reminders of Membership 190
Presence of Out-Group Members 191
Being a Minority 191
Conflict or Rivalry 191
Cultural Differences in the Importance of Group Membership 192
Personality Differences in Group Membership Importance 193
Me, You, and Them: Effects of Social Categorization 194
"I" Becomes "We": Social Categorization and the Self 194
Seeing Oneself as a Group Member 195
Accessibility of Gender Identity in the Classroom 195
Liking Ourselves: Social Identity and Self-Esteem 195
Social Identity and Emotions 196
Balancing Individuality and Connectedness 196
Others Become "We": Social Categorization and the In-Group 197
Perceiving Fellow In-Group Members 197
Liking In-Group Members: To Be Us Is To Be Lovable 198
Giving In-Group Members the Language Advantage 198
Treating the In-Group Right: Justice and Altruism 199
Others Become "They": Social Categorization and the Out-Group 200
Perceiving the Out-Group as Homogeneous: "They're All Alike!" 201
Out-Group Homogeneity in the Legal System 203
Effects of Mere Categorization: Discrimination Favoring the In-Group 204
Discrimination and Social Identity 204
Effects of Perceived Disadvantage: Let's Compete With Them 206
Effects of Extreme Threat: They Threaten Us, So Let's Attack First 206
Moral Exclusion 208
When Group Memberships Are Negative 209
Effects of Stigmatized Group Memberships 210
Effects on Performance 210
Effects on Self-Esteem 212
Defending Individual Self-Esteem 212
Using Attributions to Advantage 212
Attributional Ambiguity in the Workplace 214
Making the Most of Intragroup Comparisons 215
Women's Self-Esteem: What's So Special About Gender? 215
Individual Mobility: Escaping Negative Group Membership 216
Disidentification: Putting the Group at a Psychological Distance 216
Dissociation: Putting the Group at a Physical Distance 217
Social Creativity: Redefining Group Membership as Positive 218
Social Change: Changing the Intergroup Context 219
Social Competition 219
Recategorization: Changing the Definition of In-Group 220
"Color-Blindness" or Valuing Group Differences? 221
One Goal, Many Strategies 222
Concluding Comments 224
Summary 225
Attitudes and Attitude Change 229
Attitudes and Their Origins 230
Measuring Attitudes 230
Attitude Formation: Why and How? 232
Why Attitudes Form 233
Cultural Differences in Attitude Function 234
The Building Blocks of Attitude 234
Putting It All Together 235
Linking Attitudes to Their Objects 237
Superficial and Systematic Routes to Persuasion: From Snap Judgments to Considered Opinions 238
Superficial Processing: Persuasion Shortcuts 238
Attitudes by Association 239
Moods as Heuristic Cues: If I feel Good, I Must Like It 240
The Familiarity Heuristic: Familiarity Makes the Heart Grow Fonder 241
The Attractiveness Heuristic: Agreeing With Those We Like 242
The Expertise Heuristic: Agreeing with Those Who Know 242
The Message-Length Heuristic: Length Equals Strength 244
Systematic Processing of Persuasive Communications 245
Processing Message Content 246
The Consequences of Systematic Processing 248
Superficial and Systematic Processing: Which Strategy, When? 249
How Motivation Influences Superficial and Systematic Processing 250
How Capacity Influences Superficial and Systematic Processing 252
The Impact of Capacity on Heeding Health-Related Messages 253
How Personality Differences Influence Superficial and Systematic Processing 254
How Moods and Emotions Influence Superficial and Systematic Processing 256
Defending Attitudes: Resisting Persuasion 258
Gathering Defenses: Forewarning, Forearming, and Arguing Back 259
Inoculation: Practice Can Be the Best Resistance Medicine 260
Inoculation and Advertising Effectiveness 261
Subliminal Persuasion 262
How to Resist Subliminal Influence 264
Concluding Comments 266
Summary 267
Attitudes and Behavior 269
Changing Attitudes with Actions 270
From Action to Attitude via Superficial Processing 271
Self-Perception Theory 273
The Foot-in-the-Door Technique: Would You Mind Doing Me A Small Favor? 273
Self-Perception Processes and Volunteering 275
Personality Differences and the Foot-in-the-Door Technique 275
From Actions to Attitudes Superficially 275
Cognitive Dissonance: Changing Attitudes to Justify Behavior 277
The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance 277
Justifying Attitude-Discrepant Behavior: I Have My Reasons! 280
Justifying Effort: I Suffered For It, So I Like It 282
Justifying Decisions: Of Course I was Right! 283
The Processing Payoff: Justifying Inconsistent Actions Creates Persistent Attitudes 284
Dissonance Processes and Resisting Media Influence 285
Alternatives to Attitude Change 285
Cultural Difference and Dissonance 287
Guiding Actions with Attitudes 290
How Attitudes Guide Behavior 291
Attitudes Guide Behavior Without Much Thought 292
Attitudes Guide Behavior Through Considered Intentions 293
When Do Attitudes Influence Action? 296
Attitude Accessibility: Attitudes Must Come to Mind 296
Attitude Accessibility in Clinical Settings 298
Attitude Compatibility: The Right Attitude Must Come to Mind 299
Implicit and Explicit Attitudes as Guides for Behavior 300
When Attitudes Are Not Enough 301
Concluding Comments 303
Summary 304
Groups, Norms, and Conformity 307
Conformity to Social Norms 309
The Formation of Social Norms 309
Public Versus Private Conformity 312
Conformity and False Confessions in the Interrogation Room 313
Conformity and Culture 314
The Dual Functions of Conformity to Norms: Mastery and Connectedness 314
Expecting Consensus 315
The Dual Functions of Conformity to Norms 315
Norms Provide Mastery Insurance 315
Norms Give Us Feelings of Connectedness 317
Mastery, Connectedness, or Both? 318
Whose Consensus? The Impact of Reference Groups 319
How Groups Form Norms: Processes of Social Influence 322
Group Compromise: Taking the Middle Ground 322
Group Polarization: Going to Normative Extremes 322
Polarization in the Jury Room 324
Explaining Polarized Norm Formation 324
Superficial Processing: Relying on Others' Positions 325
Systematic Processing: Attending to Both Positions and Arguments 326
Conformity Pressure: Undermining True Consensus 328
When Consensus Seeking Goes Awry 329
Consensus Without Consideration: Unthinking Reliance on Consensus 330
Consensus Without Independence: Contamination 330
Consensus Without Acceptance: Public Conformity 332
Pluralistic Ignorance and Health Risk Behavior 334
Consensus Seeking at Its Worst: Groupthink 334
Causes and Consequences of Groupthink 335
Remedies for Faulty Consensus Seeking 337
Minority Influence: The Value of Dissent 338
Successful Minority Influence 338
Offering an Alternative Consensus 338
Negotiating Similarity and Difference 339
Promoting Systematic Processing 341
Minority Influence in the Courtroom 343
Processes of Minority and Majority Influence 344
Beyond Minority Influence: Using Norms to Strengthen Consensus 345
Concluding Comments 346
Summary 347
Norms and Behavior 351
Norms: Effective Guides for Social Behavior 353
How Norms Guide Behavior 353
Norms and the Environment 354
Why Norms Guide Behavior So Effectively 355
Enforcement: Do It, Or Else 355
Internalization: It's Right and Proper, So I Do It 356
Consensus and Support: We're All Doing It, So I'll Do It Too 356
Frequent Activation: It Came to Mind (Again), So I Do It (Again) 357
Norms in the Workplace 357
Deindividuation: Making Group Norms More Salient 358
The Norm of Reciprocity: Treating Others as They Treat You 360
Returning Favors 361
The Norm of Reciprocity for Concessions 362
The Door-in-the-Face Technique 362
Reciprocity of Concessions on the Salesfloor 364
The Norm of Commitment: Keeping Your Promises 365
The Low-Ball Technique 366
Long-Term Consequences of Commitment 367
The Norm of Obedience: Submitting to Authority 369
Milgram's Studies of Obedience 370
Attempting to Explain Obedience: Was it the Time, the Place, the People? 371
Obedience in the Workplace 372
The Norm of Obedience to Authority 373
Authority Must Be Legitimate 373
Authority Must Accept Responsibility 374
The Norm of Obedience Must Be Accessible 375
Incompatible Norms Must Be Suppressed 376
Maintaining and Escalating Obedience 377
Normative Trade-Offs: The Pluses and Minuses of Obedience 378
Rebellion and Resistance: Fighting Back 379
Reactance: Enough is Enough 380
Systematic Processing: Thinking Things Through 381
Using Norms Against Norms 383
Putting it All Together: Multiple Guides for Behavior 384
Both Attitudes and Norms Influence Behavior 385
The Direct Route 385
The Indirect Route 385
When Attitudes and Norms Conflict: Accessibility Determines Influence 387
Concluding Comments 389
Summary 390
Liking and Loving 393
Initial Attraction 394
Physical Attractiveness 394
Effects of Physical Attractiveness 395
Who Cares About Physical Attractiveness? 395
Positive Interaction 397
Interaction Spells Liking...Most of the Time 397
Why Interaction Increases Liking 398
What About Negative Interaction? 398
Birds of a Feather: Liking Similar Others 399
Liking, Similarity, and Interaction: Mutually Reinforcing Processes 400
From Acquaintance to Friend: Relationship Development 401
Exchanges of Rewards: What's In It for Me? 402
Self-Disclosure 403
Effects of Self-Disclosure 403
Close Relationships 404
Research on Close Relationships 405
Cognitive Interdependence: The Partner Becomes Part of the Self 406
Insider Versus Outsider Perspectives on Relationships 407
Behavioral Interdependence: Transformations in Exchange 408
Changes in the Distribution of Rewards 408
Attributions in Close Relationships: It's The Thought That Counts 409
Affective Interdependence: Intimacy and Commitment 410
Psychological Intimacy 410
Commitment 411
Types of People, Types of Relationships 413
Attachment Styles 413
Differing Theories About Relationships 415
Gender Differences in Relationships 416
Relationships in Cultural Perspective 416
Effects of Relationships 417
When Things Go Wrong: Intimacy, Social Support, and Health 417
Gender and Social Support 418
When Things Go Right: Capitalizing on Positive Events 419
Romantic Love and Sexuality 419
Passionate Feelings 419
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior 422
Sex in the Context of a Relationship 423
When Relationships Go Wrong 425
Interdependence and Conflicts: Seeds of Trouble 425
Resources for Handling Conflict: Relationship Maintenance 426
Idealization of the Partner 426
Commitment 427
Attachment Styles 427
Conflict Processes 428
Responding to Negative Acts 428
Forgiveness 429
Attribution: You Did It Because You Don't Love Me 429
Cycles of Conflict 430
Handling Conflicts in Everyday Life 430
Jealousy 431
Declining Intimacy and Commitment 431
Relationship Conflict and Social Problems 432
Break-Up and Aftermath 432
The Break-Up: Your Fault, My Decision 432
After the Break-Up: Grief and Distress for Two 433
Till Death Do Us Part 434
Loneliness 434
Unrequited Love 434
Concluding Comments 435
Summary 436
Interaction in Groups 439
The Mere Presence of Others: The Effects of Minimal Interdependence 440
Social Facilitation: Improvement and Impairment 440
Explaining Social Facilitation 441
Evaluation Apprehension 442
Distraction 443
Social Facilitation in the Workplace: Monitoring and Job Performance 444
Crowding: The Presence of Lots of Others 444
Crowding and the Urban Environment 444
Performance in Face-to-Face Groups: Interaction and Interdependence 445
How Groups Change: Stages of Group Development 446
Group Socialization: Becoming a Member of the Group 447
Group Development: Coming Together, Falling Apart 448
Time and Group Development 449
Getting the Job Done: Group Performance 450
Forms of Task Interdependence 450
Gains and Losses in Group Performance 451
Losses from Decreased Motivation: Social Loafing 452
Losses from Poor Coordination 454
Poor Coordination in the Workplace 454
Cures for Group Performance Losses 455
Leadership 458
What Do Leaders Do? 458
Leadership Effectiveness: Person or Situation? 459
Coaching Leadership in Youth Sports 460
Who Becomes Leader? 461
Stereotypes and Leadership 462
Putting the Group first: Transformational Leadership 464
The Dark Side of Leadership 465
Group Communication 466
Mastery- and Connectedness-Focused Communication 466
Patterns of Communication 466
Technology and Communication 467
The Computer as a Group Member 469
Concluding Comments 470
Summary 471
Aggression and Conflict 473
Aggression, Conflict, and Human Nature 474
Defining Conflict and Aggression 474
Origins of Aggression 475
Interpersonal Aggression 476
Studying Aggression 476
What Triggers Aggression? 477
Instrumental Aggression: Counting Material Costs and Rewards 478
Hostile Aggression: Emotional Responses to Provocations 479
Personality Differences in Responses to Provocations 479
Hostile Aggression: The Role of Negative Feelings 480
Norms Promoting and Restraining Aggression 480
Norms Promoting Aggression 480
Cultural Cues to Aggression 482
Models of Aggression 483
Aggressive Models in the Media 483
Norms Restraining Aggression 485
To Hurt or Not to Hurt: Putting It All Together 485
Intergroup Conflict 488
Sources of Intergroup Conflict: The Battle for Riches and Respect 489
Realistic Conflict Theory: Getting the Goods 489
Relative Deprivation: When Is Enough Enough? 490
Social Competition: Getting a Little Respect 491
The Special Competitiveness of Groups: Groups Often Value Respect Over Riches 492
Escalating Conflict: Communication and Interaction That Make Things Worse 492
Talking to the In-Group: Polarization and Commitment 492
The Special Competitiveness of Groups: When Conflict Arises, Groups Close Ranks 493
Talking to the Out-Group: Back Off, Or Else! 493
Threat and Deterrence in International Affairs 495
Coalition Formation: Escalation as Others Choose Sides 496
Perceptions in Conflict: What Else Could You Expect From Them? 496
Polarized Perceptions of In-Group and Out-Group 496
Biased Attributions for Behavior 497
The Impact of Emotion and Arousal: More Heat, Less Light 498
The Special Competitiveness of Groups: People Expect Groups to be Supercompetitive, So They React in Kind 499
"Final Solutions": Eliminating the Out-Group 500
The Special Competitiveness of Groups: Groups Offer Social Support for Competitiveness 501
Final Solutions in History 502
Resolving Conflict and Reducing Aggression 503
Altering Perceptions and Reactions 504
Minimize Cues for Aggression 504
Interpret, and Interpret Again 504
Promote Empathy With Others 504
Reducing Aggression in Society 505
Resolving Conflict Through Negotiation 505
Types of Solutions 505
Achieving Solutions: The Negotiation Process 507
Building Trust 507
Trust and the Norm of Reciprocity 508
GRIT and International Conflicts 508
Negotiating Across Cultural Lines 508
Mediation and Arbitration: Bringing in Third Parties 509
Intergroup Cooperation: Changing Social Identity 509
Superordinate Goals 510
Why Does Intergroup Cooperation Work? 511
Concluding Comments 513
Summary 514
Helping and Cooperation 517
When Do People Help? 518
Is Help Needed and Deserved? 519
Noticing Need 519
Judging Deservingness 520
Should I Help? 521
Is Helping Up to Me? Diffusion of Responsibility 521
When Norms Make Helping Appropriate 522
When Norms Make Helping Inappropriate 523
Why Do People Help? Helping for Mastery and Connectedness 524
Biologically Driven Helping: Is Helping in Our Genes? 524
Helping for Mastery: The Personal Rewards and Costs of Helping 526
Rewards and Costs of Helping 526
Emotional Rewards of Helping 527
Is Helping Pure Egoism? 528
Helping for Connectedness: Empathy and Altruism 529
Helping for Connectedness: Social Identification and Cooperation 532
Social Dilemmas: Self-Interest Versus Group Interest 532
Behavior in Social Dilemmas 534
Structural Solutions in Social Dilemmas 535
Solving Social Dilemmas: Social Identification and Cooperation 536
Role of Superficial or Systematic Processing in Helping and Cooperation 540
The Impact of Processing 540
Spontaneous Helping, Superficial Processing 540
Planned Helping, Systematic Processing 541
Volunteering in the AIDS Epidemic 542
Helping in Organizations 543
Personality Differences in Helping 544
Prosocial Behavior in Society 545
Help that Helps; Help that Hurts 545
Increasing Prosocial Behavior in Society 546
Concluding Comments 548
Summary 550
Epilogue 553
Core Principles of Social Psychology 553
How the Principles Interrelate 555
An Invitation to Social Psychology 556
Photograph Credits 557
Glossary 559
References 563
Author Index 629
Subject Index 645
loading...
Related EssentiaListsuiAction=GetRelatedListsByEanFromProductPage&page=List&pageType=list&ean=9781841694092&productCode=BK&maxCount=5&threshold=10
loading...
Fans of this BookuiAction=GetProfileBlurbsWithEANinFavorites&page=UserProfile&pageType=profile&eanInput=9781841694092
loading...