Racism in the United States: Implications for the Helping Professions by Joshua Miller, Ann Marie Garran

Preface     xvii
Acknowledgment     xxii
Introduction: Racism in the United States: Implications for the Helping Professions     xx
Background: Social Identity and Situating Ourselves     1
Social Identity     4
Situating Ourselves     5
Power, Privilege, and Social Identity     7
Comfort Zones, Learning Edges, Triggers, and Creating a Context for Learning     9
Setting Guidelines     10
Journal Writing     10
Creating a Safe Environment     11
Conclusion     11
Social Identity     11
Exploring Triggers     12
Racial Identity Formation     12
What Is Racism?     13
How Race and Racism Have Been Conceptualized     15
Historical Underpinnings     16
The Western Concept of Race     16
Theories about Racism     17
Ethnicity Theories     18
Race Relations Theories     19
Theories of Prejudice     20
Structural Theories of Racism     23
Critical Race Theory     25
The Contours of Racism     28
Levels of Racism     28
Direct and Indirect Racism     29
Intentional and Unintentional Racism     30
Sites of Racism     30
Frequency and Magnitude of Racism     30
The Spectrum of Racism     30
Intrapersonal     31
Interpersonal     32
Intergroup     32
Institutional     32
Official and State     32
Extreme, State Sanctioned     33
Conclusion     33
Applying the Spectrum of Racism     33
A Brief History of Racism in the United States and Implications for the Helping Professions     34
The Racial Contract     36
Native Americans     36
African Americans     38
Latinos/Hispanics     41
Asian Americans     44
Factors Common to Anti-Immigrant Racism     46
White Ethnic Groups     47
Push and Pull Factors     47
Discrimination Against White Ethnic Groups     48
Ethnicity and Race     49
Liminality     51
Racism and the Helping Professions in Historical Perspective     52
Progressive Era     52
The New Deal     55
The Civil Rights Movement and the Great Society      57
Conclusion     59
Differential Group Experience     60
The Web of Institutional Racism     61
The Nature of the Web of Racism     63
Residential Racism: Neighborhoods and Housing     66
Educational Racism: Public, Private, and Higher Education     68
Employment Racism     70
Racism and Wealth Accumulation and Upward Mobility     71
Environmental and Health Racism     73
Mental Health Racism     75
Access     75
Services Offered     75
Who Provides Treatment     76
The Structure of Services     76
Theoretical Biases     76
Racism in Clinical Encounters     77
Racism in the Criminal Justice System     78
Political Racism     80
Media Racism     83
Implications of the Web of Racism for the Helping Professions     84
Conclusion     86
The Web of Racism and Passports of Privilege     86
Why Is It so Difficult for People with Privilege to See Racism?     87
Consciousness     88
Invisible Knapsacks of Privilege     90
Socialization into White Privilege     91
The Role of the Family     92
The Discourse of Denigration and the Creation of Other     93
Renounced Targets     93
Triangulation     94
Stereotypes and What Can Be Done about Them     95
Sources of Resistance     95
Consequences of Unexamined Stereotypes     96
Confronting Stereotypes     98
Conclusion     101
Personal Audit     101
Confronting Stereotypes     102
Social Identity Formation and Group Membership     103
Identity     104
Racial and Ethnic Identity Theory     106
Multiracial/Biracial Identity Development     110
Theoretical Assumptions     111
Conceptual Expansions of Ethnic and Racial Identity Theory     111
Multidimensional Social Identity Development     112
Assumptions     114
Axes of Social Identity     115
Dimensions     116
Lifespan Context     117
Environmental Context     117
Resolutions/Stances     118
Social Identity Development Phases     119
Targeted Identity     121
Agent Identity     123
Identity and Intergroup Relations      125
What Can Prevent or Alleviate Intergroup Conflict?     127
Implications for the Helping Professions     129
Conclusion     130
Multidimensional Social Identity Exercise     131
Intersectionality, Racism and Other Forms of Social Oppression     134
Common Aspects of Social Oppression     135
Tilly's Model of Categorical Inequalities     135
Bell's Features of Social Oppression     136
Racism and Class Oppression     137
Race and Class Visibility     139
Race, Class, and Politics     141
Interaction of Race and Class Today     142
Racism and Sexism     143
Social Consequences of Racism and Sexism     145
Social Roles and Social Identity     146
Racism and Heterosexism     148
Heterosexism     149
The Interaction of Racism and Heterosexism     151
Immigration and Racism     153
Dynamics of Immigration     154
Significant Legislation     156
Immigration and Racism Today     156
Conclusion     161
Intersectionality     161
Racial Dialogue: Talking about Race and Racism     163
Why Undertake Racial Dialogues?     165
Why Is Racial Dialogue so Challenging?     166
Conducting Successful Racial Dialogues     168
Important Dimensions of Dialogue     171
Models and Stages of Intergroup Dialogue     172
Managing Effective Racial Dialogues     175
Racial Reconciliation and Inter-Racial Justice     180
Recognition     180
Responsibility     180
Reconstruction     180
Reparation     181
Conclusion     181
Preparing for Dialogue     182
Responses to Racism in the Community     183
Millville     184
Snapshots of Millville Residents     185
Racism in Millville     186
The Dynamics of Racism in Communities     187
Structural/Institutional Racism     187
Political Power     188
Social Identity and Group Membership     190
The Phenomenology of Community Racism     191
Social Cohesion and Community Integrity     192
Responding to Racism in the Community     194
Public Dialogue     194
Re-Storying the Community     195
Structural Interventions     196
Generating Social Capital in the Quest for Community Integrity     198
Anti-Racism Work in the Community     200
Assessment and Prioritization     200
Working with Existing Groups and Organizations     202
Working in Coalitions     203
Disruptive Strategies     204
Participatory Efforts     205
Self-Care     206
Conclusion     207
Mapping Your Community     207
Confronting Racism in Agencies and Organizations     209
Terminology     210
Types of Organizations     211
How Racism Is Manifested in Social Service Organizations     212
Policies     212
Interpersonal Relationships     215
Organizational Power     215
Resources Devoted to Anti-Racism     217
Developmental Models of Organizational Change     218
The Process of Becoming an Anti-Racism Organization     222
Mission Statement     223
Project Group     223
Assessment and Prioritization     224
An Anti-Racism Audit     224
Conclusion     225
Anti-Racism Agency Assessment     225
Cross-Racial Clinical Work      226
First Steps     228
Social Identity     228
Culture, Values, and Worldview     229
Power     231
Legacies of Racism Seen in Clinical Work     232
Anger     232
Rage     232
Guilt     233
Shame     233
Stress and Trauma     234
Grief and Mourning     234
Theoretical Biases     235
Barriers to Effective Cross-Racial Clinical Work     236
Internalized Racism     236
Inattention to Power and Privilege     237
Defensive Racial Dynamics     237
Guidelines for Effective Cross-Racial Clinical Work     239
Working with Social Identity     239
Focusing on Strengths     240
Listening and Observing     240
Working with Racial Transference and Counter-Transference     241
Ability to Tolerate and Respond to Strong Affect     242
Situating Clients in Their Historical and Social Context     243
Mirroring and Empathy     243
Bringing up Issues of Race and Racism     244
Responding to Bias     245
Issues for Clinicians Who Identify as White     246
Issues for Clinicians Who Identify as People of Color or Multiracial     247
Supervision and Consultation     247
Structural and Environmental Issues     249
Environment     249
Access     249
Staffing and Board Representation     250
Conclusion     250
Crossed Racial Identity between Worker and Client     250
Exploring Emotions     251
Teaching about Racism     252
Examples     255
Regina     255
Alicia     256
Michael     256
Course and Class Structure     257
Classroom Climate     259
Classroom Safety     260
Classroom Norms     261
Caucus Groups     262
Instructor Self-Awareness     263
Resistance     264
Supporting Anti-Racism Teaching     265
Understanding Students     266
Teaching Strategies and Techniques     267
Exercises     268
Interviewing in Fairs     269
Maintaining Balance     269
Availability of Teachers     270
Feeling Stuck     271
Conclusion     273
Exercise 12.1     273
Dismantling Racism: Creating the Web of Resistance     275
Creating the Web of Resistance     277
Core Values     277
The Intrapersonal Realm: Introspection and Education     279
The Interpersonal Realm: Engaging in Dialogue/Working in Coalitions     280
The Organizational Realm: Creating Anti-Racism Organizations     281
The Community Realm: Creating Inclusive Communities     281
Being Heard: The Realm of Discourse and Culture     281
The Political and Social Realm: Laws, Institutions, and Practices     282
Maintaining Motivation     285
Self-Care     285
Self-Compassion     286
Avoiding Humiliating Others     286
Working Together     287
Taking the Long View     287
Valuing the Process as Well as the Product     287
Growing as Activists     288
Eternal Vigilance     288
Anti-Racism Activist Self-Audit     289
Confronting Racism Without Humiliating Others     289
Study Circles Dialogues     291
Steps to Successful Intergroup Conversation: A Critical-Dialogic Model     292
Issues to Consider When Confronting Institutional Racism      294
Activities Toward Becoming an Anti-Racist Organization     295
Cultural Values and Worldviews     297
Culturally Influenced Behaviors     299
Questions about Cross-Cultural Contacts     300
Further Reading about Cross-Racial/Cultural Clinical Practice     301
Imaginary Letter     303
References     305
Index     320