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Principles of Helicopter Flight by W. J. Wagtendonk
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(Paperback)
- Pub. Date: April 2007
- 320pp
- Sales Rank: 38,489
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Product Details
- Pub. Date: April 2007
- Publisher: Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.
- Format: Paperback, 320pp
- Sales Rank: 38,489
- ISBN-13: 9781560276494
- ISBN: 1560276495
- Edition Number: 2
Synopsis
Recently updated, this comprehensive handbook explains the aerodynamics of helicopter flight, as well as how to perform typical helicopter maneuvers, unlike many aviation training manuals which are strictly how-to guides. Beginning with the basics of aerodynamics, each step of the process is fully illustrated and thoroughly explained—from the physics of helicopter flying and advanced operations to helicopter design and performance—providing helicopter pilots with a sound technical foundation on which to base their in-flight decisions. Containing discussions on the NOTAR (no tail rotor) system, strakes, and frequently misunderstood principles of airspeed and high-altitude operations, this revised edition also includes the latest procedures and regulations from the Federal Aviation Administration.
More Reviews and RecommendationsBiography
W. J. Wagtendonk is a retired flight instructor and a former pilot in the Royal New Zealand Air Force. He is the founder of the Nelson Aviation College in Motueka, New Zealand, the first flight school approved to conduct both fixed-wing and helicopter courses.
From the Publisher
Recently updated, this comprehensive handbook explains the aerodynamics of helicopter flight, as well as how to perform typical helicopter maneuvers, unlike many aviation training manuals which are strictly how-to guides. Beginning with the basics of aerodynamics, each step of the process is fully illustrated and thoroughly explained—from the physics of helicopter flying and advanced operations to helicopter design and performance—providing helicopter pilots with a sound technical foundation on which to base their in-flight decisions. Containing discussions on the NOTAR (no tail rotor) system, strakes, and frequently misunderstood principles of airspeed and high-altitude operations, this revised edition also includes the latest procedures and regulations from the Federal Aviation Administration.
Product Details
- Pub. Date: April 2007
- Publisher: Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.
- Format: Paperback, 320pp
- Sales Rank: 38,489
- ISBN-13: 9781560276494
- ISBN: 1560276495
- Edition Number: 2
Table of Contents
Foreword xi
Preface xii
Physics 1
Newton's Laws 1
Newton's First Law 1
Newton's Second Law 2
Newton's Third Law 3
Conclusion 3
Mathematical Terms 3
Velocity 3
Acceleration 3
Equilibrium 4
Gravitational Forces 4
Centripetal Force 5
Vector Quantities 5
Moments and Couples 6
Moments 6
Couples 6
Energy 6
Pressure Energy 6
Dynamic (Kinetic) Energy 7
Units of Measurement 7
Graphs 8
Review 1 10
The Atmosphere 11
Atmospheric Pressure 11
Air Temperature 11
Combined Effects 12
Moisture Content 12
The Standard Atmosphere (ISA) 12
Pressure Altitude 13
Density Altitude 13
Summary 13
Operational Considerations 14
Review 2 14
Lift 15
Definitions 15
The Lift Formula 18
Dynamic Energy 20
Summary 20
Indicated Airspeed and True Airspeed 21
Center of Pressure 22
Aerodynamic Center 24
Review 3 26
Drag 27
Types of Drag 28
Parasite Drag 28
Profile Drag 29
Form Drag 29
Skin Friction 30
Induced Drag 31
Tip Vortices 33
Effect of Airspeed on Induced Drag 34
Effect of Aspect Ratio 34
Methods to Reduce Induced Drag 35
Wash-out 35
Tip Design 35
Total Drag Curve 36
Conclusion 37
Review 4 38
Lift/Drag Ratio 39
Best (or Maximum) L/D Ratio 40
Other Factors Influencing L/D Ratio 41
Conclusion 41
Review 5 42
Aerodynamic Forces 43
Definitions 43
Rotor Systems 45
Introduction 45
Rotational Airflow (Vr) 46
Blade Angle of Attack 46
Induced Flow 47
Airflow Caused by Aircraft Velocity 48
The Forces 48
Total Rotor Thrust 49
Rotor Drag (Torque) 49
Angle of Attack and the Rotor Thrust/Rotor Drag Ratio 50
Induced Flow and the Rotor Thrust/Rotor Drag Ratio 50
Inflow Angle 51
The Force Opposing Weight 52
Factors Influencing Rotor Thrust 53
Air Density 53
Rotor rpm 54
Blade Angle 54
Disc Area 54
Significant Aspects of High Inertia Blades 55
Conclusion 55
Review 6 56
Rotor Blade Airfoils 57
Drag Factors 57
Stress Factors 58
Effect of Local Air Velocity on Blade Design 59
Blade Tip Speeds 59
Development in Blade Design 60
Review 7 60
Rotor Drag (Torque) 61
Disc Loading Changes 61
Changes in Gross Weight 62
Changes in Altitude 62
Changes in Configuration 62
Ground Effect 62
Translational Lift 64
Summary 65
Review 8 66
The Anti-Torque Rotor 67
Anti-Torque Functions 67
Mechanical Considerations 68
Anti-Torque and Demand for Power 68
Effect of the Wind 69
Translating Tendency (Tail Rotor Drift) 70
Rolling Tendency 71
Tail Rotor Flapping 71
Shrouded Tail Rotors 72
Tail Rotor Design 72
Other Methods of Anti-Torque Control 72
Strakes and Anti-Torque 73
Tail Rotor Failure 74
Review 9 76
Controls and Their Effects 77
Collective Control 77
Cyclic Control 78
Effect of Controls on Blade Lead-Lag Behavior 78
Mean Lag Position 78
The Four Main Causes of Movement about the Lead/Lag Hinge 78
Conservation of Angular Momentum (Coriolis Effect) 78
Hookes Joint Effect 79
Periodic Drag Changes 80
Random Changes 80
Review 10 80
The Hover 81
Hover Our-of Ground Effect (OGE) and In-Ground Effect (IGE) 81
Factors Affecting Ground Effect 82
Helicopter Height Above Ground Level 82
Density Altitude and Gross Weight 82
Gross Weight and Power Required 83
Nature of the Surface 83
Slope 83
Wind Effect 84
Confined Areas - Recirculation 84
Factors Determining the Degree of Recirculation 84
Over-Pitching 85
Review 11 86
Forward Flight 87
Three Basic Aspects of Horizontal Flight 89
Tilting the Disc with Cyclic 89
An Alternate Explanation of Cyclic Action 91
Dissymmetry of Lift 91
Eliminating Dissymmetry of Lift 92
Blow-Back (Flap Back) 94
Blow-back (Flap-Back) When Using Collective 95
Summary 96
Designs that Reduce Flapping Amplitude 96
Delta-3 Hinges 96
Offset Pitch Horns 97
Reverse Flow 98
Translational Lift 99
Transverse Flow Effect 101
Review 12 102
Power, Range and Endurance 103
Power 103
Ancillary Power 103
Profile Power 103
Induced Power 104
Parasite Power 104
The Total Horsepower Required Curve (the HPR) 105
Attitude 106
Weight 107
Slingload and Parasite Drag Items 107
Flying the Helicopter for Range 108
Effect of the Wind 109
Engine Considerations 110
Range Summary 110
Flying the Helicopter for Endurance 111
Endurance Summary 111
Review 13 112
Climbing and Descending 113
Climbing 113
The Horsepower Available Curve (The HPA) 114
Factors Affecting the Horsepower Available Curve 114
Altitude 114
Density Altitude 115
Leaning the Mixture 115
Collective Setting 115
Rate of Climb 115
Angle of Climb 116
Effect of Lowering Horsepower Available Curve 116
Summary 117
Effect of the Wind 117
Climb Performance Summary 118
Descending 118
Angle of Descent 119
Effect of the Wind on Descents 120
Descent Performance Summary 121
Review 14 122
Maneuvers 123
Turning 123
Rate of Turn 124
Radius of Turn 125
Rate and Radius Interaction 125
The Steep Turn 125
Power Requirement 126
The Climbing Turn 127
The Descending Turn 127
Effect of Altitude on Rate of Turn and Radius of Turn 127
Effect of Changes in Gross Weight on Rate and Radius 128
Effect of the Wind on Rate and Radius 128
Effect of the Wind on Indicated Airspeed and Translational Lift 129
Effect of Slingloads 130
Effect of Slipping and Skidding 131
Pull-Out from a Descent 131
Review 15 132
The Flare 133
Initial Action 133
Flare Effects 133
Thrust Reversal 134
Increasing Total Rotor Thrust 134
Increasing Rotor rpm 134
Management of Collective 135
Review 16 136
Retreating Blade Stall 137
Effect of Increasing Airspeed on Stall Angle 137
Factors Affecting the Advancing Blade 138
Symptoms of Retreating Blade Stall 138
Recovery 139
Factors Influencing V[subscript ne] 140
Conclusion 141
Review 17 142
Autorotation 143
Initial Aircraft Reaction 143
The Lift/Drag Ratio and Forces Involved 143
The Stalled Region 144
The Driven (Propeller) Region 145
The Driving (Autorotative) Region 145
Combined Effects of All Regions 146
Autorotation and Airspeed 148
Combined Effect 149
Effect of Forward Speed on the Three Regions 150
Effect of Airspeed Changes on Rotor rpm 150
Autorotation Range and Endurance 150
Effect of Altitude on Range and Endurance 151
Effect of Gross Weight on Range and Endurance 151
Effect of Parasite Drag and Slingloads on Range and Endurance 152
Touchdown 152
Loss of Power at Low Heights 153
Factors Influencing Rotor rpm Decay When the Engine Fails 153
Combination of Airspeed and Height Best Avoided 153
Review 18 156
Hazardous Flight Conditions 157
Vortex Ring State 157
Effect on the Root Section of the Blade 158
Effect on the Tip Section of the Blade 158
Flight Conditions Likely to Lead to Vortex Ring State 160
Symptoms of Vortex Ring State 160
Recovery from Vortex Ring State 161
Tail Rotor Vortex Ring State 161
Ground Resonance 162
Causes of Ground Resonance 162
Factors that May Cause Ground Resonance 163
Rotor Head Vibrations 163
Fuselage Factors 163
Ground Resonance Recovery Action 164
Blade Sailing 164
Dynamic Rollover 165
Factors Influencing the Critical Angle 165
Cyclic Limitations 166
Mast Bumping 167
Avoiding Mast Bumping 169
Recovery from Low and Zero g 169
Mast Bumping Summary 169
Exceeding Rotor rpm Limits 169
Reasons for High Rotor rpm Limits 169
Engine Considerations 169
Blade Attachment Stress 169
Sonic Problems 170
Reasons for Low Rotor rpm Limits 170
Insufficient Centrifugal Force 170
Reduced Tail Rotor Thrust 170
Rotor Stalls 170
Recovery from Low Rotor rpm 171
Review 19 172
Helicopter Design and Components 173
Transmission 173
Main Rotor Gear Box 173
Freewheeling Unit 174
Drive Shafts 174
Tail Rotor Gear Box 174
Rotor Brake 174
Clutch 174
Chip Detectors 175
Governors 175
Swashplate (Control Orbit) 176
Phase Lag 177
Advance Angle 177
Rotor Blades 179
Chordwise Blade Balancing 180
Spanwise Blade Balancing 180
Trim Controls 180
Bias Control 180
Electronic Servo Systems 180
Tail Rotors 181
Tail Rotor Flapping 181
Tail Rotor Rotation 181
Helicopter Vibrations 181
Types of Vibrations 182
Vertical Vibrations 182
Lateral Vibrations 183
Combined Vertical and Lateral Vibrations 183
High Frequency Vibrations 183
Engine Vibrations 184
Remedial Action by the Pilot 184
Control Functions 184
Collective 184
Twist Grip Throttle 184
Engine Cooling 185
Carburetor Icing 185
Dual Tachometer Instruments 186
Rotor Stabilizing Design Systems 187
The Bell Stabilizing Bar 187
The Hiller System 187
The Underslung Rotor System 188
Rotorless Anti-Torque System 189
Advantages of the Notar System 189
Components 189
Air Intake 190
Engine-driven Fan 190
Slots 190
Direct Jet Thruster 191
Vertical Stabilizers 191
Undercarriages 192
Skids 192
Wheels 192
Oleo (Shock) Struts 193
Review 20 195
Stability 195
Static Stability 195
Dynamic Stability 195
Stability in the Three Planes of Movement 196
Longitudinal Stability 197
Longitudinal Stability Aids 197
Lateral Stability 198
Directional Stability 199
Directional Stability Aids 200
Cross Coupling with Lateral Stability 200
Offset Flapping Hinges 200
Review 21 202
Special Helicopter Techniques 203
Crosswind Factors 203
Lateral Blow-back (Flap-back) 203
Weathervane Action 203
Effect on tail Rotor Thrust 203
Different Types of Takeoffs and Landings 204
Downwind Takeoffs and Landings 204
Running Takeoff 204
Cushion-Creep Takeoff 205
Confined Area Takeoff (Towering Takeoff) 205
Maximum Performance Takeoff 206
Running Landing 206
The Zero-Speed Landing 207
Operations on Sloping Surfaces 207
Sling Operations 208
The Equipment 208
The Sling 210
Ground Handling 211
Flying Techniques 212
Snagging of Cable or Strap on the Undercarriage before Liftoff 212
Never-Exceed Speed (V[subscript ne]) 213
Preflight Rigging 213
Length of Cable or Strap 213
Number and Type of Slings 213
Nets 213
Pallets 214
Load Center of Gravity 214
Pilot Action in Case of Helicopter Oscillation 214
The Approach 215
Types of Slingload 215
Horizontal Loads 215
Unusual Loads 216
Conclusion 219
Review 22 220
Mountain Flying 221
Updrafts and Downdrafts 221
Thermal Currents 223
Katabatic and Anabatic Winds 224
Mechanical Turbulence 224
Wind Strength 225
Size and Shape of Mountains 226
Stability or Instability of Air 226
Wind Direction Relative to Mountain Orientation 227
Summary 227
Valley Flying 227
Ridgeline Flying 228
The "Standard" Mountain Approach 228
General Coinments on Mountain Approaches 230
High Attitude Approach Considerations 230
Transition 232
Ground Effect Considerations on Mountain Sites 232
Determining Wind Change during Critical Phases 233
Landing Site Selection 233
Surface of Sites 233
Flight in Areas Covered in Snow and Ice 234
Survival Equipment 235
Review 23 236
Helicopter Icing 237
Ice Accretion 237
Influence of Temperature and Drop Size 237
Water Content of Air 238
Kinetic Heating 238
Shape of Airfoils and Other Aircraft Components 238
Mechanical Flexion and Vibration 239
Ice Formation on Blades at Different Temperatures 239
Electrical Anti-Icing 240
Consequences of Ice Accretion 240
Engine Intake Icing 241
Review 24 242
Helicopter Performance 243
Helicopter Performance Factors 243
Altitude 243
Pressure Altitude 244
Density Altitude 246
Combined Effect of Pressure and Density Altitude 247
Moisture Content of Air 248
Aircraft Gross Weight 248
External Stores 248
The Wind 249
Power Check 249
Performance Graphs 250
Units of Measurement 251
Hover Ceiling Graph 252
Takeoff Distance over a 50-Foot Obstacle 254
Turbine Engine Power Check 256
Maximum Gross Weight for Hovering 258
Climb Performance 260
Range 261
Endurance 262
Review 25 263
Weight and Balance 265
Definitions 265
Weight 267
Balance 267
Beyond the Center of Gravity Limits 268
Excessive Forward Center of Gravity 268
Excessive Aft Center of Gravity 269
Summary 269
Calculating the Center of Gravity Position 269
To Calculate the Longitudinal Center of Gravity Position 271
To Calculate the Lateral Takeoff Center of Gravity Position 271
Summary 273
Effect of External Loads on Center of Gravity Position 273
Conclusion 274
Review 26 274
Sample Examination 277
Temperature Conversion 287
Altimeter Setting Conversion 289
Review and Examination Answers 291
Glossary 295
Index 299
Preface xii
Physics 1
Newton's Laws 1
Newton's First Law 1
Newton's Second Law 2
Newton's Third Law 3
Conclusion 3
Mathematical Terms 3
Velocity 3
Acceleration 3
Equilibrium 4
Gravitational Forces 4
Centripetal Force 5
Vector Quantities 5
Moments and Couples 6
Moments 6
Couples 6
Energy 6
Pressure Energy 6
Dynamic (Kinetic) Energy 7
Units of Measurement 7
Graphs 8
Review 1 10
The Atmosphere 11
Atmospheric Pressure 11
Air Temperature 11
Combined Effects 12
Moisture Content 12
The Standard Atmosphere (ISA) 12
Pressure Altitude 13
Density Altitude 13
Summary 13
Operational Considerations 14
Review 2 14
Lift 15
Definitions 15
The Lift Formula 18
Dynamic Energy 20
Summary 20
Indicated Airspeed and True Airspeed 21
Center of Pressure 22
Aerodynamic Center 24
Review 3 26
Drag 27
Types of Drag 28
Parasite Drag 28
Profile Drag 29
Form Drag 29
Skin Friction 30
Induced Drag 31
Tip Vortices 33
Effect of Airspeed on Induced Drag 34
Effect of Aspect Ratio 34
Methods to Reduce Induced Drag 35
Wash-out 35
Tip Design 35
Total Drag Curve 36
Conclusion 37
Review 4 38
Lift/Drag Ratio 39
Best (or Maximum) L/D Ratio 40
Other Factors Influencing L/D Ratio 41
Conclusion 41
Review 5 42
Aerodynamic Forces 43
Definitions 43
Rotor Systems 45
Introduction 45
Rotational Airflow (Vr) 46
Blade Angle of Attack 46
Induced Flow 47
Airflow Caused by Aircraft Velocity 48
The Forces 48
Total Rotor Thrust 49
Rotor Drag (Torque) 49
Angle of Attack and the Rotor Thrust/Rotor Drag Ratio 50
Induced Flow and the Rotor Thrust/Rotor Drag Ratio 50
Inflow Angle 51
The Force Opposing Weight 52
Factors Influencing Rotor Thrust 53
Air Density 53
Rotor rpm 54
Blade Angle 54
Disc Area 54
Significant Aspects of High Inertia Blades 55
Conclusion 55
Review 6 56
Rotor Blade Airfoils 57
Drag Factors 57
Stress Factors 58
Effect of Local Air Velocity on Blade Design 59
Blade Tip Speeds 59
Development in Blade Design 60
Review 7 60
Rotor Drag (Torque) 61
Disc Loading Changes 61
Changes in Gross Weight 62
Changes in Altitude 62
Changes in Configuration 62
Ground Effect 62
Translational Lift 64
Summary 65
Review 8 66
The Anti-Torque Rotor 67
Anti-Torque Functions 67
Mechanical Considerations 68
Anti-Torque and Demand for Power 68
Effect of the Wind 69
Translating Tendency (Tail Rotor Drift) 70
Rolling Tendency 71
Tail Rotor Flapping 71
Shrouded Tail Rotors 72
Tail Rotor Design 72
Other Methods of Anti-Torque Control 72
Strakes and Anti-Torque 73
Tail Rotor Failure 74
Review 9 76
Controls and Their Effects 77
Collective Control 77
Cyclic Control 78
Effect of Controls on Blade Lead-Lag Behavior 78
Mean Lag Position 78
The Four Main Causes of Movement about the Lead/Lag Hinge 78
Conservation of Angular Momentum (Coriolis Effect) 78
Hookes Joint Effect 79
Periodic Drag Changes 80
Random Changes 80
Review 10 80
The Hover 81
Hover Our-of Ground Effect (OGE) and In-Ground Effect (IGE) 81
Factors Affecting Ground Effect 82
Helicopter Height Above Ground Level 82
Density Altitude and Gross Weight 82
Gross Weight and Power Required 83
Nature of the Surface 83
Slope 83
Wind Effect 84
Confined Areas - Recirculation 84
Factors Determining the Degree of Recirculation 84
Over-Pitching 85
Review 11 86
Forward Flight 87
Three Basic Aspects of Horizontal Flight 89
Tilting the Disc with Cyclic 89
An Alternate Explanation of Cyclic Action 91
Dissymmetry of Lift 91
Eliminating Dissymmetry of Lift 92
Blow-Back (Flap Back) 94
Blow-back (Flap-Back) When Using Collective 95
Summary 96
Designs that Reduce Flapping Amplitude 96
Delta-3 Hinges 96
Offset Pitch Horns 97
Reverse Flow 98
Translational Lift 99
Transverse Flow Effect 101
Review 12 102
Power, Range and Endurance 103
Power 103
Ancillary Power 103
Profile Power 103
Induced Power 104
Parasite Power 104
The Total Horsepower Required Curve (the HPR) 105
Attitude 106
Weight 107
Slingload and Parasite Drag Items 107
Flying the Helicopter for Range 108
Effect of the Wind 109
Engine Considerations 110
Range Summary 110
Flying the Helicopter for Endurance 111
Endurance Summary 111
Review 13 112
Climbing and Descending 113
Climbing 113
The Horsepower Available Curve (The HPA) 114
Factors Affecting the Horsepower Available Curve 114
Altitude 114
Density Altitude 115
Leaning the Mixture 115
Collective Setting 115
Rate of Climb 115
Angle of Climb 116
Effect of Lowering Horsepower Available Curve 116
Summary 117
Effect of the Wind 117
Climb Performance Summary 118
Descending 118
Angle of Descent 119
Effect of the Wind on Descents 120
Descent Performance Summary 121
Review 14 122
Maneuvers 123
Turning 123
Rate of Turn 124
Radius of Turn 125
Rate and Radius Interaction 125
The Steep Turn 125
Power Requirement 126
The Climbing Turn 127
The Descending Turn 127
Effect of Altitude on Rate of Turn and Radius of Turn 127
Effect of Changes in Gross Weight on Rate and Radius 128
Effect of the Wind on Rate and Radius 128
Effect of the Wind on Indicated Airspeed and Translational Lift 129
Effect of Slingloads 130
Effect of Slipping and Skidding 131
Pull-Out from a Descent 131
Review 15 132
The Flare 133
Initial Action 133
Flare Effects 133
Thrust Reversal 134
Increasing Total Rotor Thrust 134
Increasing Rotor rpm 134
Management of Collective 135
Review 16 136
Retreating Blade Stall 137
Effect of Increasing Airspeed on Stall Angle 137
Factors Affecting the Advancing Blade 138
Symptoms of Retreating Blade Stall 138
Recovery 139
Factors Influencing V[subscript ne] 140
Conclusion 141
Review 17 142
Autorotation 143
Initial Aircraft Reaction 143
The Lift/Drag Ratio and Forces Involved 143
The Stalled Region 144
The Driven (Propeller) Region 145
The Driving (Autorotative) Region 145
Combined Effects of All Regions 146
Autorotation and Airspeed 148
Combined Effect 149
Effect of Forward Speed on the Three Regions 150
Effect of Airspeed Changes on Rotor rpm 150
Autorotation Range and Endurance 150
Effect of Altitude on Range and Endurance 151
Effect of Gross Weight on Range and Endurance 151
Effect of Parasite Drag and Slingloads on Range and Endurance 152
Touchdown 152
Loss of Power at Low Heights 153
Factors Influencing Rotor rpm Decay When the Engine Fails 153
Combination of Airspeed and Height Best Avoided 153
Review 18 156
Hazardous Flight Conditions 157
Vortex Ring State 157
Effect on the Root Section of the Blade 158
Effect on the Tip Section of the Blade 158
Flight Conditions Likely to Lead to Vortex Ring State 160
Symptoms of Vortex Ring State 160
Recovery from Vortex Ring State 161
Tail Rotor Vortex Ring State 161
Ground Resonance 162
Causes of Ground Resonance 162
Factors that May Cause Ground Resonance 163
Rotor Head Vibrations 163
Fuselage Factors 163
Ground Resonance Recovery Action 164
Blade Sailing 164
Dynamic Rollover 165
Factors Influencing the Critical Angle 165
Cyclic Limitations 166
Mast Bumping 167
Avoiding Mast Bumping 169
Recovery from Low and Zero g 169
Mast Bumping Summary 169
Exceeding Rotor rpm Limits 169
Reasons for High Rotor rpm Limits 169
Engine Considerations 169
Blade Attachment Stress 169
Sonic Problems 170
Reasons for Low Rotor rpm Limits 170
Insufficient Centrifugal Force 170
Reduced Tail Rotor Thrust 170
Rotor Stalls 170
Recovery from Low Rotor rpm 171
Review 19 172
Helicopter Design and Components 173
Transmission 173
Main Rotor Gear Box 173
Freewheeling Unit 174
Drive Shafts 174
Tail Rotor Gear Box 174
Rotor Brake 174
Clutch 174
Chip Detectors 175
Governors 175
Swashplate (Control Orbit) 176
Phase Lag 177
Advance Angle 177
Rotor Blades 179
Chordwise Blade Balancing 180
Spanwise Blade Balancing 180
Trim Controls 180
Bias Control 180
Electronic Servo Systems 180
Tail Rotors 181
Tail Rotor Flapping 181
Tail Rotor Rotation 181
Helicopter Vibrations 181
Types of Vibrations 182
Vertical Vibrations 182
Lateral Vibrations 183
Combined Vertical and Lateral Vibrations 183
High Frequency Vibrations 183
Engine Vibrations 184
Remedial Action by the Pilot 184
Control Functions 184
Collective 184
Twist Grip Throttle 184
Engine Cooling 185
Carburetor Icing 185
Dual Tachometer Instruments 186
Rotor Stabilizing Design Systems 187
The Bell Stabilizing Bar 187
The Hiller System 187
The Underslung Rotor System 188
Rotorless Anti-Torque System 189
Advantages of the Notar System 189
Components 189
Air Intake 190
Engine-driven Fan 190
Slots 190
Direct Jet Thruster 191
Vertical Stabilizers 191
Undercarriages 192
Skids 192
Wheels 192
Oleo (Shock) Struts 193
Review 20 195
Stability 195
Static Stability 195
Dynamic Stability 195
Stability in the Three Planes of Movement 196
Longitudinal Stability 197
Longitudinal Stability Aids 197
Lateral Stability 198
Directional Stability 199
Directional Stability Aids 200
Cross Coupling with Lateral Stability 200
Offset Flapping Hinges 200
Review 21 202
Special Helicopter Techniques 203
Crosswind Factors 203
Lateral Blow-back (Flap-back) 203
Weathervane Action 203
Effect on tail Rotor Thrust 203
Different Types of Takeoffs and Landings 204
Downwind Takeoffs and Landings 204
Running Takeoff 204
Cushion-Creep Takeoff 205
Confined Area Takeoff (Towering Takeoff) 205
Maximum Performance Takeoff 206
Running Landing 206
The Zero-Speed Landing 207
Operations on Sloping Surfaces 207
Sling Operations 208
The Equipment 208
The Sling 210
Ground Handling 211
Flying Techniques 212
Snagging of Cable or Strap on the Undercarriage before Liftoff 212
Never-Exceed Speed (V[subscript ne]) 213
Preflight Rigging 213
Length of Cable or Strap 213
Number and Type of Slings 213
Nets 213
Pallets 214
Load Center of Gravity 214
Pilot Action in Case of Helicopter Oscillation 214
The Approach 215
Types of Slingload 215
Horizontal Loads 215
Unusual Loads 216
Conclusion 219
Review 22 220
Mountain Flying 221
Updrafts and Downdrafts 221
Thermal Currents 223
Katabatic and Anabatic Winds 224
Mechanical Turbulence 224
Wind Strength 225
Size and Shape of Mountains 226
Stability or Instability of Air 226
Wind Direction Relative to Mountain Orientation 227
Summary 227
Valley Flying 227
Ridgeline Flying 228
The "Standard" Mountain Approach 228
General Coinments on Mountain Approaches 230
High Attitude Approach Considerations 230
Transition 232
Ground Effect Considerations on Mountain Sites 232
Determining Wind Change during Critical Phases 233
Landing Site Selection 233
Surface of Sites 233
Flight in Areas Covered in Snow and Ice 234
Survival Equipment 235
Review 23 236
Helicopter Icing 237
Ice Accretion 237
Influence of Temperature and Drop Size 237
Water Content of Air 238
Kinetic Heating 238
Shape of Airfoils and Other Aircraft Components 238
Mechanical Flexion and Vibration 239
Ice Formation on Blades at Different Temperatures 239
Electrical Anti-Icing 240
Consequences of Ice Accretion 240
Engine Intake Icing 241
Review 24 242
Helicopter Performance 243
Helicopter Performance Factors 243
Altitude 243
Pressure Altitude 244
Density Altitude 246
Combined Effect of Pressure and Density Altitude 247
Moisture Content of Air 248
Aircraft Gross Weight 248
External Stores 248
The Wind 249
Power Check 249
Performance Graphs 250
Units of Measurement 251
Hover Ceiling Graph 252
Takeoff Distance over a 50-Foot Obstacle 254
Turbine Engine Power Check 256
Maximum Gross Weight for Hovering 258
Climb Performance 260
Range 261
Endurance 262
Review 25 263
Weight and Balance 265
Definitions 265
Weight 267
Balance 267
Beyond the Center of Gravity Limits 268
Excessive Forward Center of Gravity 268
Excessive Aft Center of Gravity 269
Summary 269
Calculating the Center of Gravity Position 269
To Calculate the Longitudinal Center of Gravity Position 271
To Calculate the Lateral Takeoff Center of Gravity Position 271
Summary 273
Effect of External Loads on Center of Gravity Position 273
Conclusion 274
Review 26 274
Sample Examination 277
Temperature Conversion 287
Altimeter Setting Conversion 289
Review and Examination Answers 291
Glossary 295
Index 299
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