Table of Contents
Preface xi
Introduction: Stories of Change 1
Stories of Change 2
A Hewlett-Packard Change Story: Managing a Merger 2
An IBM Change Story: Transformational Change from Below and Above 3
A Kodak Change Story: Provoking Reactions 5
A McDonald's Change Story: Responding to Pressure 6
Drawing out the Change Issues and Where They Are Found in the Chapters That Follow 8
Images of Managing Change...Chapter Two 8
Why Organizations Change...Chapter Three 10
What Changes in Organizations... Chapter Four 11
Diagnosis for Change...Chapter Five 11
Resistance to Change...Chapter Six 11
Implementing Change...Chapters Seven and Eight 12
Linking Vision and Change... Chapter Nine 12
Strategies and Skills for Communicating Change...Chapters Ten and Eleven 13
Consolidating Change...Chapter Twelve 13
Bringing It All Together: A Roadmap of the Book 14
A Note on Chapter Formats 16
Conclusion 16
Bibliography 17
Notes 20
Images of Managing Change 23
Images of Managing Change: Where They ComeFrom 24
Images of Managing 24
Images of Change Outcomes 25
Six Images of Managing Change 26
Change Manager as Director 27
Change Manager as Navigator 27
Change Manager as Caretaker 28
Change Manager as Coach 30
Change Manager as Interpreter 31
Change Manager as Nurturer 32
Using the Six-Images Framework 34
Three Key Uses of the Six-Images Framework 35
Conclusion 38
Supplemental Reading 39
Case Study: Green Mountain Resort (Dis)solves the Turnover Problem 40
Bibliography 42
Notes 46
Why Organizations Change 49
Environmental Pressures for Change 50
Fashion Pressures 52
Mandated Pressures 53
Geopolitical Pressures 55
Market Decline Pressures 56
Hypercompetition Pressures 57
Reputation and Credibility Pressures 59
Why Organizations May Not Change in the Face of External Environmental Pressures 60
Organizational Learning versus Threat-Rigidity 61
Environment as Objective Entity versus Environment as Cognitive Construction 62
Forces for Change versus Forces for Stability 63
Bridging (Adapting) versus Buffering (Shielding) 63
Organizational Pressures for Change 65
Growth Pressures 65
Integration and Collaboration Pressures 66
Identity Pressures 67
New Broom Pressures 67
Power and Political Pressures 69
Conclusion 70
Supplemental Reading 71
Case Study: Chipping Away at Intel 72
Bibliography 74
Notes 80
What Changes in Organizations 85
Types of Changes 86
Distinguishing between First-Order and Second-Order Changes 86
First-Order, Adaptive Changes 87
Second-Order, Transformational Change 89
Beyond Either First-Order or Second-Order Change 93
Rethinking Linear, Equilibrium Assumptions about Change 96
Implications for Change Managers 97
Types of Changes: Lessons from the Front Line 99
Downsizing 99
Technological Change 101
Mergers and Acquisitions 103
Revisiting Downsizing, Technological Change, and Mergers and Acquisitions: How Fast? 106
Conclusion 107
Supplemental Reading 108
Case Study: Nestle 109
Bibliography 110
Notes 115
Diagnosis for Change 121
Models: Why Bother? 122
Modeling Organizations 123
The Six-Box Organizational Model 123
The 7-S Framework 124
The Star Model 124
The Congruence Model 126
The Burke-Litwin Model 128
The Four-Frame Model 128
Diagnosis by Image 130
Component Analysis 130
The PESTEL Framework 130
Scenario Analysis 131
Gap Analysis 132
The Elements of Strategy 132
The Strategic Inventory 133
Newsflash Exercise 135
Cultural Web 135
Structural Dilemmas 140
The Boundaryless Organization 140
Diagnosing Readiness to Change 141
Stakeholder Analysis 146
Force-Field Analysis 151
Conclusion 152
Supplemental Reading 152
Case Study: Boeing 153
Bibliography 155
Notes 157
Resistance to Change 159
Support for Change 159
Signs of Resistance to Change 161
Why Do People Resist Change? 162
Dislike of Change 162
Discomfort with Uncertainty 163
Perceived Negative Effect on Interests 163
Attachment to the Established Organizational Culture/Identity 163
Perceived Breach of Psychological Contract 165
Lack of Conviction That Change Is Needed 165
Lack of Clarity as to What Is Expected 165
Belief That the Specific Change Being Proposed Is Inappropriate 165
Belief That the Timing Is Wrong 166
Excessive Change 166
Cumulative Effect of Other Changes in One's Life 166
Perceived Clash with Ethics 166
Reaction to the Experience of Previous Changes 167
Disagreement with the Way the Change Is Being Managed 168
Managers as Change Resistors 169
Managing Resistance 172
A "Situational" Approach 172
The Resistance Cycle, aka "Let Nature Take Its Course" 172
"Creative Counters" to Expressions of Resistance 174
Thought Self-Leadership 174
Tinkering, Kludging, and Pacing 176
The "Power of Resistance" 177
Conclusion 181
Supplemental Reading 182
Case Study: Problems at Perrier 183
Bibliography 184
Notes 188
Implementing Change: Organization Development, Appreciative Inquiry, Positive Organizational Scholarship, and Sense-Making Approaches 191
Coach Image of Implementing Change: The Organization Development (OD), Appreciative Inquiry (AI), and Positive Organizational Scholarship (POS) Approaches 192
Traditional OD Approach: Fundamental Values 192
The OD Practitioner 194
Criticisms of OD 195
Current Relevance of OD's Traditional Values 196
Are OD Values Universal? 197
Engaging in Large-Scale Change 198
Appreciative Inquiry: From Problem Solving to (Building on) What Works Well 199
The Emergence of Positive Organizational Scholarship (POS) 202
Interpreter Image of Implementing Change: Sense-Making Approaches 204
Conclusion 209
Supplemental Reading 210
Case Study: Change at DuPont 211
Bibliography 213
Notes 216
Implementing Change: Change Management, Contingency, and Processual Approaches 219
Director Image of Managing Change: Change Management and Contingency Approaches 220
Change Management Approaches 220
Is Change Management Supplanting OD? 224
OD-Change Management Debates 227
Contingency Approaches 229
Why Contingency Approaches Are Not Dominant 232
Navigator Images of Managing Change: Processual Approaches 233
What Does Managing Change Mean from a Processual Approach? 234
Conclusion 236
Supplemental Reading 237
Case Study: The British Airways Swipe Card Debacle 239
Bibliography 241
Notes 245
Linking Vision and Change 249
Content of Meaningful Visions 253
Vision Attributes 253
Beyond Bumper Sticker Visions? Visions as Stories 257
Relationship of Vision to Mission and Goals 258
Relationship of Vision to Market Strategy 258
How Context Affects Vision 259
Processes by Which Visions Emerge 260
Crafting the Vision 260
Questions That Help to Develop a Vision 261
Connecting the Vision to the Organization's Inner Voice 265
When Visions Fail 265
Adaptability of the Vision over Time 266
Presence of Competing Visions 268
Linking Vision to Change: Three Debates 268
Does Vision Drive Change or Emerge during Change? 269
Does Vision Help or Hinder Change? 270
Is Vision an Attribute of Heroic Leaders or of Heroic Organizations? 273
Conclusion 277
Supplemental Reading 279
Case Study: Role of Vision at Mentor Graphics 280
Bibliography 281
Notes 285
Strategies for Communicating Change 291
The Communication Process 292
Modeling the Communication Process 292
Influence of Language, Power, Gender, and Emotion 295
Strategies for Communicating Change 299
Can You Communicate Too Much? 299
Getting the Word out or Getting Buy-in? 301
Beyond Spray and Pray 304
Contingency Approaches to Communication Strategies 305
Communication Media 308
Media Richness 308
Who Is Responsible for Communicating the Change? 310
Tag Teams 310
Conclusion 312
Supplemental Reading 313
Case Study: Cheryl Ways and Agilent Technology's Layoffs 314
Bibliography 316
Notes 319
Skills for Communicating Change 323
Communication Skills for Engaging Others in the Change Process 326
Listening as a Communication Skill 326
Telling Stories 327
Selling Change Upward 328
Toxic Handlers 330
Change Conversation Skills 331
Talking in Stages 331
Talking Coherently 333
Aligning Your Language with the Desired Change 334
Creating a Common Change Language 336
Communicating Change with the Outside World 339
Selling Internal Changes to External Stakeholders 339
Crisis Management and Corporate Reputation 340
Conclusion 343
Supplemental Reading 344
Case Study: Tyco 345
Bibliography 347
Notes 349
Sustaining Change 355
Sustained Change: What Are Its Signs? 355
Actions to Sustain Change 359
Redesign Roles 360
Redesign Reward System 360
Link Selection Decisions to Change Objectives 360
Act Consistently with Advocated Actions 360
Encourage "Voluntary Acts of Initiative" 362
Measure Progress 363
Celebrate "En Route" 365
Fine-Tune 366
Some Words of Caution 367
Expect Some Unanticipated Outcomes 367
Be Alert to Measurement Limitations 368
Don't "Declare Victory" Too Soon 368
Beware Escalation of Commitment 369
Recognize "Productive Failure" 370
Conclusion 373
Supplemental Reading 374
Case Study: The Challenger and Columbia Shuttle Disasters 375
Bibliography 379
Notes 382
Index 385
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