Preface ix
Part 1 Communication and Intercultural Competence
1 Introduction to Intercultural Competence 1
Imperatives for Intercultural Competence 3
The Demographic Imperative for Intercultural Competence 3
The Technological Imperative for Intercultural Competence 6
The Economic Imperative for Intercultural Competence 8
The Peace Imperative for Intercultural Competence 9
The Interpersonal Imperative for Intercultural Competence 11
Communication 12
Defining Communication 12
Characteristics of Communication 13
Interpersonal Communication 19
The Challenge of Communicating in an Intercultural World 21
Summary 22
For Discussion 23
For Further Reading 23
2 Culture and Intercultural Communication 24
Culture 25
Defining Culture for the Study of Communication 25
Culture and Related Terms 29
Why Cultures Differ 33
Forces That Maintain Cultural Differences 33
The Interrelatedness of Cultural Forces 44
Intercultural Communication 46
Examples of Intercultural Interactions 46
Similarities and Differences between Communicators 50
Definition of Intercultural Communication 52
Intercultural Communication and Related Terms 53
Summary 55
For Discussion 56
For Further Reading 56
3 Intercultural Communication Competence 57
The United States as an Intercultural Community 58
Metaphors of U.S. Cultural Diversity 59
What Do You Call Someone from the United States of America? 62
Cultural Groups in the United States 63
Competence and Intercultural Communication 65
Intercultural Communication Competence 65
The Components of Intercultural Competence 66
Basic Tools for Improving Intercultural Competence 72
The Basics of InterculturalCompetence 72
Description, Interpretation, and Evaluation 76
Summary 80
For Discussion 81
For Further Reading 81
Part 2 Cultural Differences in Communication
4 Cultural Patterns and Communication: Foundations 83
Defining Cultural Patterns 85
Components of Cultural Patterns 85
Beliefs 86
Values 88
Norms 89
Social Practices 89
Characteristics of Cultural Patterns 90
The Functions of Cultural Patterns 90
An Overview of Cultural Patterns 92
Cultural Patterns and Intercultural Competence 104
Summary 106
For Discussion 106
For Further Reading 106
5 Cultural Patterns and Communication: Taxonomies 107
Hall's High- and Low-Context Cultural Taxonomy 109
Use of Covert and Overt Messages 109
Importance of Ingroups and Outgroups 112
Orientation to Time 112
Hofstede's Cultural Taxonomy 113
Power Distance 114
Uncertainty Avoidance 115
Individualism versus Collectivism 116
Masculinity versus Femininity 118
Long-Term versus Short-Term Time Orientation 119
Indulgence versus Restraint 120
Monumentalism versus Self-Effacement 120
Comparing Hofstede's Dimensions 121
The Globe Cultural Taxonomy 124
Power Distance 126
Uncertainty Avoidance 126
In-Group Collectivism 127
Institutional Collectivism 127
Gender Egalitarianism 128
Assertiveness 129
Performance Orientation 130
Future Orientation 130
Humane Orientation 131
Comparing the Globe Dimensions 131
Cultural Taxonomies and Intercultural
Competence 138
Summary 139
For Discussion 140
For Further Reading 140
6 Cultural Identity and Cultural Biases 141
Cultural Identity 142
The Nature of Identity 142
The Formation of Cultural Identity 143
Characteristics of Cultural Identity 145
Cultural Biases 147
Social Categorizing 148
Ethnocentrism 149
Stereotyping 152
Prejudice 156
Discrimination 158
Racism 159
Identity, Biases, and Intercultural
Competence 162
Summary 163
For Discussion 164
For Further Reading 164
Part 3 Coding Intercultural Communication
7 Verbal Intercultural Communication 165
The Power of Language in Intercultural Communication 166
Definition of Verbal Codes 167
The Features of Language 168
Rule Systems in Verbal Codes 169
Interpretation and Intercultural Communication 174
Language, Thought, Culture, and Intercultural Communication 177
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis of Linguistic Relativity 177
Language and Intercultural Communication 185
Verbal Codes and Intercultural Competence 193
Summary 195
For Discussion 196
For Further Reading 196
8 Nonverbal Intercultural Communication 197
Definition of Nonverbal Codes 198
Characteristics of Nonverbal Codes 198
Relationship of Nonverbal to Verbal Communication 199
Cultural Universals in Nonverbal Communication 200
Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Communication 201
Nonverbal Messages in Intercultural Communication 204
Body Movements 204
Space 208
Touch 210
Time 212
Voice 215
Other Nonverbal Code Systems 216
Synchrony of Nonverbal Communication Codes 218
Nonverbal Communication and Intercultural Competence 219
Summary 221
For Discussion 222
For Further Reading 222
9 The Effects of Code Usage in Intercultural Communication 223
Preferences in the Organization of Messages 224
Organizational Preferences in the Use of U.S. English 224
Organizational Preferences in Other Languages and Cultures 225
Cultural Variations in Persuasion 228
Persuasion in Intercultural Encounters 228
Cultural Differences in What Is Acceptable as Evidence 229
Cultural Differences in Styles of Persuasion 231
Cultural Variations in the Structure of Conversations 235
Value of Talk and Silence 235
Rules for Conversations 237
Effects of Code Usage on Intercultural Competence 241
Summary 242
For Discussion 242
For Further Reading 243
Part 4 Communication in Intercultural Relationships
10 Intercultural Competence in Interpersonal Relationships 244
Cultural Variations in Interpersonal Relationships 245
Types of Interpersonal Relationships 245
Dimensions of Interpersonal Relationships 252
Dynamics of Interpersonal Relationships 255
The Maintenance of Face in Interpersonal Relationships 257
Types of Face Needs 257
Facework and Interpersonal Communication 260
Facework and Intercultural Communication 261
Improving Intercultural Relationships 262
Learning about People from Other Cultures 262
Sharing Oneself with People from Other Cultures 267
Handling Differences in Intercultural Relationships 268
Interpersonal Relationships and Intercultural Competence 271
Summary 272
For Discussion 272
For Further Reading 272
11 Episodes, Contexts, and Intercultural Interactions 274
Social Episodes in Intercultural Relationships 274
The Nature of Social Episodes 275
Components of Social Episodes 276
Contexts for Intercultural Communication 283
The Health Care Context 283
The Educational Context 290
The Business Context 297
Episodes, Contexts, and Intercultural Competence 310
Summary 310
For Discussion 310
For Further Reading 310
12 The Potential for Intercultural Competence 312
Intercultural Contact 313
Dominance and Subordination between Groups 313
Attitudes among Cultural Members 315
Outcomes of Intercultural Contact 317
The Ethics of Intercultural Competence 324
When in Rome... 325
Are Cultural Values Relative or Universal? 326
Do the Ends Justify the Means? 327
Ethics-Your Choices 329
The Perils and Prospects for Intercultural Competence 329
Impact of National and International Events on Intercultural Communication 329
Forces That Pull Us Together and Apart 333
Concluding Remarks 335
Summary 336
For Discussion 337
For Further Reading 337
Resources 338
Intercultural Films 338
Online Resources 339
Notes 342
Text Credits 373
Author Index 377
Subject Index 383
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