Series Editor's Preface xi Preface xiii Part 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction 3 Overview 3 Sources of Information about the Incas 6 Part 2 Inca Civilization Chapter 2 Location of the Inca Civilization and Environmental Setting 19 Location 19 The Andean Environment 19 Andean Culture and Its Environment 24 Chapter 3 Historical and Chronological Setting 28 European Discovery of the Incas 28 Andean History before the Incas 33 Development of Andean Cultural Chronology 48 Chapter 4 Origins, Growth, and Decline of Inca Civilization 56 What the Incas Told the Spanish about Their Origins 57 What Scholars Have Learned about Inca Origins 62 The Inca Dynasty 68 Inca Rulers under Spanish Control 79 Chapter 5 The Economic Structure of the Inca State 83 Subsistence Patterns 83 The Inca Imperial Economy 87 Chapter 6 Social Organization and Social Structure 93 Estimating the Population of the Inca Empire 93 The Social Organization of Inca Civilization 96 The System of Social Classes 97 Life under Inca Rule 102 Inca Towns and Cities 108 Chapter 7 The Political Structure of the Inca State 112 Inca Government 112 Inca Decimal Administration 114 Administrative Infrastructure 115 The Inca Army 126 Social Engineering and the Disposition of Conquered Territories 131 Political Relations between the Incas and Their Subjects 133 Internal Politics among the Incas 134 Chapter 8 Religion and Ideology 137 Andean Cosmology 137 Inca State Ideology 138 Local-Level Ideology 139 Inca State Religion 142 Principal Rituals and Ceremonies of the State Religion 151 Principal Temples of the State Religion 155 Huacas: The Animistic Folk Religion 158 Chapter 9 Material Culture 161 Pottery 161 Wooden Objects 164 Metal 164Cloth 167 Stone 169 Shell and Bone 171 Architecture 171 Chapter 10 Intellectual Accomplishments 179 Fine Arts 179 System of Measures 179 Language and Literacy 180 Inca Literacy, Mathematics, and Methods of Recording 182 Counting and Calculating Devices 185 Astronomical Knowledge 185 Part 3 Current Assessments Chapter 11 Major Controversies and Future Directions in Inca Studies 195 Historicists vs. Structuralists: The Great Inca Debate 195 Issues in Inca Archaeology 197 Chronology 203 Glossary 207 Resources for Further Study 225 Index 259 About the Author 269