Families in the Twenty-First Century     vii
Preface     ix
Acknowledgments     x
About the Author     xi
Putting a Face on Poverty     1
Dee     1
What Are Dee's Options?     5
Kate     7
Why Is Kate's Family Poor?     11
Robert and Maria     13
What Can We Learn from Robert and Maria?     18
Poverty Is a Structural Problem     19
Conclusion and Organization     21
Who Are the Poor, and What Exactly Is Poverty, Anyway?     25
How Many Are Poor?     26
Race, Ethnicity, and Poverty     26
Children in Poverty     27
Other Parts of the Story     28
Pearl's Family: Living in Extreme Poverty     29
How Is Poverty Measured?     31
Absolute Measures     31
Poverty Threshold (Lines) vs. Poverty Guidelines     35
Criticisms of the U.S. Poverty Thresholds (and Guidelines)     36
Relative Measures     37
Inequality in Wealth and Income     39
Social Class     41
The Upper Class     42
The Upper Middle Class     43
The MiddleClass     43
The Working Class     44
The Working Poor     44
The Underclass     45
How Does Social Class Affect Our Lives?     45
Living Poorly: Poverty's Effects on Children and Their Parents     51
Carlos     52
Physical Health     54
Birth Outcomes     55
Lead Paint Poisoning     55
Food Insecurity and Hunger     56
Access to Healthcare     58
Cognitive Abilities and School Achievement     60
Children's Mental Health, Social Adjustment, and Well-being     62
Consequences for Adults     63
Pathways     65
Health and Nutrition     65
Quality of the Home Environment     69
Parental Stress and Mental Health     71
Fewer Resources for Learning     71
Housing Problems     73
Poor Quality Neighborhoods     74
How Americans View Poverty: Why Are So Many Families Poor?     79
Historical Views About Poverty     80
Colonial America     80
The Nineteenth Century     81
Black Americans     83
Mexican Americans     85
Native Americans      87
Current Views About Poverty     88
Individualism     89
Social Structuralism     94
Culture of Poverty     98
Fatalism     102
Welfare and Its Reform: Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF)     107
History of Cash Assistance Programs     107
Mothers' Pensions     108
Aid to Dependent Children (ADC)     108
Growing Caseloads and Growing Concerns     110
The 1960s and the War on Poverty     111
Precursor to Welfare Reform     113
Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF): "Ending Welfare As We Know It"     116
How TANF Works     118
State Policies and State Variation     122
Other TANF Policies and Regulations     124
What Do Welfare Recipients Think of Welfare Reform?     125
How Is TANF Working? Research Findings     128
Poverty Rates Among Families That Leave TANF Are Very High     130
Families That Left Welfare Recently Are More At Risk Than Early TANF-Leavers     130
Families Leaving Welfare Are More Likely to Have Significant Health Problems     132
A Large Share of Very Poor and Needy Families Do Not Receive TANF     134
Childcare Assistance Is Crucial to Helping Families Move from Welfare to Work     134
Building Resiliency: Programs and Policies for Families     137
Family Resiliency     137
Individual, Family, and Community Factors     138
What Is Missing? Structural Conditions     140
Food Stamp Program     140
Eligibility     142
Characteristics of Food Stamp Households     143
Inadequacy of Food Stamps     144
Health Insurance     146
The Stress of Being Uninsured     148
Medicaid     151
State Plans: The Oregon Health Plan     152
SCHIP     153
Medicare     154
Head Start     155
The Earned Income Tax Credit     157
Social Security     158
Can Poverty Be Eliminated? Lessons We Could Learn     163
Reasons for High Poverty in the United States     164
Comparative Family Policies     168
Family Allowance     169
Childcare Policies     171
Maternity and Parental Leaves     175
Case Study: France     180
Conclusion     183
References     185
Index     207