Assessment: In Special and Inclusive Education by John Salvia, James Ysseldyke, Sara Bolt

Part I: INTRODUCTION. 1. Introduction: The Context for Assessment in Schools and Current Practices. Assessment Defined. The Importance of Assessment in School and Society. Types of Assessment Decisions Made by Educators. Screening Decisions: Are There Unrecognized Problems? Progress Monitoring Decisions: Is the Student Making Adequate Progress? Instructional Planning and Modification Decisions: What Can We Do to Enhance Competence and Build Capacity, and How Can We Do It? Resource Allocation Decisions: Are Additional Resources Necessary? Eligibility for Special Education Services Decisions: Is the Student Eligible for Special Education and Related Services? Program Evaluation: Are Instructional Programs Effective? Accountability Decisions: Does What We Do Lead to Desired Outcomes? Important Things to Think About as You Read and Study This Textbook. The Type of Decision Determines Type of Information Needed. Focus on Alterable Behaviors. Assess Instruction Before Assessing Learners. Assessment Is Broader than Testing. Assessments Have Consequences. Not All Assessments are Equal. Assessment Practices are Dynamic. Preparing to Learn About Assessment in Special and Inclusive Education in Today's Schools. Good News. 2. Legal and Ethical Considerations in Assessment. Laws. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Major Assessment Provisions of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA). The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. 2004 Reauthorization of IDEA. Ethical Considerations. Beneficence. Recognition of the Boundaries of Professional Competence. Respect for the Dignity of Persons. Adherence to Professional Standards onAssessment Test Security. 3. Test Scores and How to Use Them. Basic Quantitative Concepts. Scales of Measurement. Characteristics of Distributions. Average Scores. Measures of Dispersion. Correlation. Scoring Student Performance. Objective Versus Subjective Scoring. Summarizing Student Performance. Interpretation of Test Performance. Criterion-Referenced Interpretations. Achievement-Standards. Referenced Interpretations. Norm-Referenced Interpretations. Norms Important Characteristics. Proportional Representation. Number of Subjects. Age of Norms. Relevance of Norms. 4. Technical Adequacy. Reliability Error in Measurement. The Reliability Coefficient. Standard Error of Measurement. Estimated True Scores. Confidence Intervals. Validity General Validity. Methods of Validating Test Inferences. Factors Affecting General Validity. Responsibility for Valid Assessment. 5. Using Test Adaptations and Accommodations. Why Be Concerned About Testing Adaptations? Changes in Student Population. Changes in Educational Standards. The Need for Accurate Measurement. It Is Required by Law. The Importance of Promoting Test Accessibility. Concept of Universal Design. Universal Design Applications. Promote Better Testing for All. Factors to Consider in Making Accommodation Decisions. Ability to Understand Assessment Stimuli. Ability to Respond to Assessment Stimuli. Normative Comparisons. Exposure to the Curriculum Being Tested (Opportunity to Learn). Environmental Considerations. Cultural Considerations. Linguistic Considerations. Categories of Testing Accommodations. Recommendations for Making Accommodation Decisions During Eligibility Testing. Students with Disabilities. Recommendations for Making Accommodation Decisions During Accountability Testing. Part II: ASSESSMENT IN CLASSROOMS. 6. Assessing Behavior Through Observation. General Considerations. Live or Aided Observation. Obtrusive Versus Unobtrusive Observation. Contrived Versus Naturalistic Observation. Defining Behavior. Measurable Characteristics of Behavior. Sampling Behavior. Contexts. Times. Behaviors. Conducting Systematic Observations. Preparation. Data Gathering. Data Summarization. Criteria for Evaluating Observed Performances. 7. Teacher-Made Measures of Achievement. Uses. Ascertain Skill Development. Monitor Instruction. Document Instructional Problems. Make Summative Judgments. Dimensions of Academic Assessment Content Specificity Testing Frequency. Testing Formats. Considerations in Preparing Tests. Selecting Specific Areas of the Curriculum. Writing Relevant Questions. Organizing and Sequencing Items. Developing Formats for Presentation and Response Modes. Writing Directions for Administration. Developing Systematic Procedures for Scoring Responses. Establishing Criteria to Interpret Student Performance. Response Formats. Selection Formats. Supply Formats. Assessment in Core Achievement Areas. Reading. Mathematics. Spelling. Written Language. Potential Sources of Difficulty in the Use of Teacher-Made Tests. 8. Managing Classroom Data on Response to Instruction. Preparing For and Managing Mandated Tests. Preparing For and Managing Progress Monitoring. Establish Routines. Create Assessment Stations. Prepare Assessment Materials. Organize Materials. Involve Others. Data Displays. Interpreting Data: Decision-Making Rules. Model Progress Monitoring Projects. Heartland Area Education Agency and the Iowa Problem-Solving Model. Part III: ASSESSMENT USING FORMAL MEASURES. 9. How To Evaluate A Test. Selecting a Test to Review. How Do We Review a Test? Test Purposes. Test Content and Assessment Procedures. Scores. Norms. Reliability. Validity. Making a Summative Evaluation. 10. Assessment of Academic Achievement with Multiple-Skill Devices. Considerations for Selecting a Test. Why Do We Assess Academic Achievement? Specific Tests of Academic Achievement. Stanford Achievement Test Series (SESAT, SAT, TASK). Terra Nova 3. Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised-Normative Update. Wide Range Achievement Test-4. Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition. Diagnostic Achievement Battery-Third Edition. Getting the Most out of an Achievement Test. 11. Using Diagnostic Reading Measures. Why Do We Assess Reading? The Ways in Which Reading Is Taught. Skills Assessed by Diagnostic Reading Tests. Oral Reading. Assessment of Word-Attack Skills. Assessment of Word Recognition Skills. Assessment of Other Reading and Reading-Related Behaviors. Specific Diagnostic Reading Tests. Group Reading Assessment and Diagnostic Evaluation (GRADE). Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills, Sixth Edition (DIBELS). 12. Using Diagnostic Mathematics Measures. Why Do We Assess Mathematics? Behaviors Sampled by Diagnostic Mathematics Tests. Specific Diagnostic Mathematics Tests. Commonly Used Diagnostic Mathematics Tests. Group Mathematics Assessment and Diagnostic Evaluation (G-MADE). KeyMath-3 Diagnostic Assessment (KeyMath-3 DA). 13. Using Measures of Oral and Written Language. Terminology. Why Assess Oral and Written Language? Considerations in Assessing Oral Language. Observing Language Behavior. Imitation. Elicited Language. Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Procedure. Specific Oral and Written Language Tests. Test of Written Language-4 (TOWL-4). Test of Language Development Primary-4. Test of Language Development Intermediate-4. Oral and Written Language Scales (OWLS). 14. Using Measures of Intelligence. The Effect of Pupil Characteristics on Assessment of Intelligence. Behaviors Sampled by Intelligence Tests. Discrimination. Generalization. Motor Behavior. General Knowledge. Vocabulary. Induction Comprehension. Sequencing. Detail Recognition. Analogical Reasoning. Pattern Completion. Abstract Reasoning. Memory. Factors Underlying Intelligence Test Behaviors. Commonly Interpreted Factors on Intelligence Tests. Assessment of Processing Deficits. Types of Intelligence Tests. Individual Tests. Group Tests. Nonverbal Intelligence Tests. Assessment of Intelligence: Commonly-Used Tests. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV. Woodcock-Johnson-III Normative Update: Tests of Cognitive Abilities and Tests of Achievement. Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Fourth Edition (PPVT-4). 15. Using Measures of Perceptual and Perceptual-Motor Skills. Why Do We Assess Perceptual-Motor Skills? Specific Tests of Perceptual and Perceptual-Motor Skills. The Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test Family. Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (Beery VMI). 16. Using Measures of Social and Emotional Behavior. Ways of Assessing Problem Behavior. Interview Techniques. Situational Measures. Rating Scales. Why Do We Assess Problem Behavior? Functional Behavioral Assessment and Analysis. Steps for Completing a Functional Behavior Assessment. Specific Rating Scales of Social-Emotional Behavior. Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition (BASC-2). 17. Using Measures of Adaptive Behavior. Defining Adaptive Behavior. Physical Environment. Social and Cultural Expectations. Age and Adaptation. Performance Versus Ability. Maladaption. Context. Frequency and Amplitude. Assessing Adaptive Behavior. Why Do We Assess Adaptive Behavior? Specific Tests of Adaptive Behavior. Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition (VABS II). 18. Using Measures for Infants, Toddlers, and Preschoolers. Why Do We Assess Infants, Toddlers, and Preschoolers? Tests Used with Infants, Toddlers, and Preschoolers. Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Third Edition (Bayley-III). Developmental Indicators for the Assessment of Learning, Third Edition (DIAL-3). 19. Using Technology-Enhanced Measures. Continuous Technology-Enhanced Assessment Systems. Accelerated Math. Periodic Technology-Enhanced Assessment Systems. STAR Math. STAR Reading AIMSweb. Handheld Observation Systems Classroom Response Systems. Computer Scoring Systems. Part IV: USING ASSESSMENT RESULTS TO MAKE EDUCATIONAL DECISIONS. 20. Making Instructional Decisions. Decisions Prior to Referral Decisions: Are There Unrecognized Problems? Decision: Is the Student Making Adequate Progress in Regular Education? Decision: What Can We Do to Enhance Competence and Build Capacity? Decision: Should the Student Be Referred to an Intervention Assistance Team? Decision: Should the Student Be Referred for Multidisciplinary Evaluation? Decisions Made in Special Education. Decision: What Should Be Included in a Student's IEP? Decision: What Is the Least Restrictive Appropriate Environment? Decision: Is the Instructional Program Effective? 21. Making Special Education Eligibility Decisions. Official Student Disabilities. Autism. Mental Retardation. Specific Learning Disability. Emotional Disturbance. Traumatic Brain Injury. Speech or Language Impairment. Visual Impairment. Deafness and Hearing Impairment. Orthopedic Impairments. Other Health Impairments. Deaf-Blindness. Multiple Disabilities. Developmental Delay. Establishing Educational Need for Special Education. The Multi Disciplinary Team. Composition of the MDT. Responsibilities of the MDT. The Process of Determining Eligibility Procedural Safeguards. Valid Assessments Team Process. Problems in Determining Special Education Eligibility. 22. Making Accountability Decisions. Legal Requirements. Important Terminology. It's All About Meeting Standards. Alternate Assessment. Developing Standards-Based Accountability Systems. Establish a Solid Foundation for Assessment Efforts. Decide What Data Will Be Collected and What Rewards and Sanctions Will be Used. Specify Content Domains for Data Collection. Specify Rewards and Sanctions. Establish a Data-Collection and Reporting System. Identify Data Sources. Define the Population of Students for Whom Alternate Assessments Will Be Used. Develop Rules or Guidelines for IEP Teams to Use in Deciding Who Takes What Kind of Assessment. Develop or Adapt Data-Collection and -Analysis Mechanisms. Decide How Information Will Be Reported and Used. Install a Standards-Based Accountability System. Current State Assessment and Accountability Practices. Important Considerations in Assessment for the Purpose of Making Accountability Decisions. Best Practices in High-Stakes Assessment and Accountability. 23. Communicating Assessment Information. Characteristics of Effective School Teams. Types of School Teams. Communicating Assessment Information to Parents. Communicating Assessment Information through Written Records. Collection of Pupil Information. Maintenance of Pupil Information. Dissemination of Pupil Information.