Applied Photovoltaics by Stuart R. Wenham, Martin A. Green, Muriel E. Watt, Richard Corkish

The Characteristics of Sunlight     3
Particle-wave duality     3
Blackbody radiation     4
The sun and its radiation     5
Solar radiation     6
Direct and diffuse radiation     8
The Greenhouse Effect     10
Apparent motion of the sun     11
Solar insolation data and estimation     12
Extraterrestrial radiation     13
Terrestrial global radiation on a horizontal surface     13
Global and diffuse components     19
Radiation on tilted surfaces     22
Solar energy and photovoltaics     25
Semiconductors and P-N Junctions     31
Semiconductors     31
The bond model     32
The band model     33
Doping     33
Semiconductor types     34
Crystalline silicon     34
Multicrystalline silicon     34
Amorphous silicon     35
Thin film crystalline silicon     36
Absorption of light     36
Recombination     37
p-n junctions     38
The Behaviour of Solar Cells     43
Effect of light     43
Spectralresponse     47
Effect of temperature     49
Effect of parasitic resistances     51
Cell Properties and Design     57
Efficiencies     57
Optical losses     58
Recombination losses     62
Top contact design     63
Bulk and sheet resistivities     63
Grid spacings     65
Other losses     67
Laboratory cells versus industry requirements     69
The Laser Grooved, Buried Contact Solar Cell     70
PV Cell Interconnection and Module Fabrication     75
Module and circuit design     75
Identical cells     75
Non-Identical cells     76
Non-identical modules     76
Hot-spot heating     79
Module structure     83
Environmental protection     84
Thermal considerations     85
Electrical insulation     88
Mechanical protection     89
Degradation and failure modes     89
Embodied energy and life cycle issues     92
Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System Components     97
Introduction     97
Stand-alone PV system design      99
Solar modules     100
Batteries     101
Types     101
Applications     101
Requirements     102
Efficiency     102
Power rating and capacity     102
Depth-of-discharge     103
Lead-acid batteries     103
Types     103
Plate material     103
Charging regimes     104
Efficiencies     105
Benchmarking and categorisation of similar use     105
Other electrical charge storage methods     106
Nickel-cadmium batteries     106
Nickel-metal-hydride batteries     106
Rechargeable alkaline manganese (RAM) batteries     107
Lithium-ion and lithium-polymer batteries     107
Redox-flow batteries     107
Super capacitors     107
Power conditioning and regulation     108
Diodes     108
Regulators     108
Inverters     112
Balance of system components     114
Wiring     114
Over-current protection     114
Switches     115
Connectors     115
Earthing (grounding)      116
Lightning protection     116
Metering and alarms     116
Battery housing and signage     116
Housing of electronics     117
Module mounting     117
Designing Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems     125
Introduction     125
System availability     126
Hybrid systems     127
A simplified PV system design approach     128
Sandia National Laboratory approach     130
Australian Standard AS4509.2     131
System design software     132
Specific Purpose Photovoltaic Applications     135
Introduction     135
Space     135
Marine navigational aids     136
Telecommunications     136
Transportable PV power supplies     137
Radio telephone services     138
Mobile phone networks     139
Optical fibre networks     139
Cathodic protection     140
System sizing     140
Controllers     141
Power sources     141
Water pumping     144
Consumer products for indoor use     147
Battery chargers      148
Photovoltaics for developing countries     148
Refrigeration     149
Photovoltaic powered transport     150
Solar cars     151
Lighting     152
Remote monitoring     153
Direct-drive applications     154
Electric fences     155
Remote Area Power Supply Systems     161
Household power systems     161
The choice between AC and DC     163
Appliances     163
Consumer education     167
Photovoltaic-diesel/petrol generator hybrid systems     167
Diesel generators     168
Petrol generators     170
Hybrid system design     170
RAPS system costs     173
Portable RAPS systems     173
Portable systems for remote aboriginal communities     173
Integrated solar home systems     174
Stationpower     174
Reliability and maintenance     175
Government assistance schemes     175
Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems     181
Introduction     181
PV systems in buildings     182
Module mounting approaches     183
The inverter      185
On-site storage     186
Size and economics     188
Other issues     188
Utility applications for photovoltaics     189
Design issues for central power stations     190
Cell interconnection     191
Safety     193
Islanding     194
The value of PV-generated electricity     195
Energy credit     195
Capacity credit     197
Distributed benefits     197
Example 1-Distribution Feeder 1103, Kerman, California     199
Example 2-Kalbarri, Western Australia     201
International PV programs     201
USA     201
Japan     204
Europe     204
India     206
China     206
Australia     206
Photovoltaic Water Pumping System Components     215
Introduction     215
System configurations     216
Water pumps     218
Centrifugal pumps     220
Displacement or volumetric pumps     222
Motors     226
Introduction     226
DC motors     228
AC motors      231
Motor losses     232
Integrated pump/motor machines     232
Power conditioning circuitry     232
Batteries     236
Array wiring and mounting     238
Array wiring     238
Array mounting     238
PV Water Pumping System Design     243
Introduction     243
Basic steps in system design     244
Design of a directly-coupled system     245
Standard AM0 and AM1.5 Spectra     249
Equations for Calculating Sun Position     255
Characteristic Days and Declinations     257
Some Insolation Data Sources     259
Ground-based measurements     259
Satellite-derived data     260
Australia and New Zealand     260
Europe     261
Hong Kong     261
USA     261
Algeria     262
Brazil     262
Regression constants     262
Theoretical models and calculators     263
Global Gazetteer     263
Standards     265
ASTM international     265
Australia-Standards Australia     267
Canada-Standards Council of Canada      268
China-Standardization administration of china (SAC)     268
European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC)     270
Germany-Deutsches Institut fur Normung (DIN)     272
Global Approval Program for Photovoltaics (PVGAP)     274
Indonesia-Badan Standardisasi Nasional (BSN)     274
Institution of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)     275
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)     276
INternational Organization for Standards (ISO)     277
Japan-Japanese Standards Association (JSA)     278
Korea-Korean Standards Association (KSA)     279
Mexico-Direccion General de Normas (DGN)     281
Russia-Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology     281
Sweden-Standardiseringen i Sverige (SIS)     282
Taiwan (ROC)-Bureau of Standards, Metrology and Inspection (BSMI)     282
Thailand-thai industrial standards institute (TISI)     282
TUV Rheinland     282
Underwriters Laboratories (UL)     283
Zimbabwe-Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ)     283
Universal Technical Standard for Solar Home Systems     283
Best Practice Guidelines and Accreditation     283
International Solar Energy Society (ISES) and Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Sonnenenergie eV (DGS)     284
Alternative Sources of Power for Water Pumping     287
Introduction     287
Human labour using hand pumps     287
Draught animals     288
Petrol- or diesel-fueLled small engines     288
Centralised rural electrification     288
Wind pumps     289
Water wheels, turbines, ram pumps and current turbines     289
Steam engines     289
Biogas-fuelled small engines     289
Solar radiation, used via photovoltaics     290
Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System Design     291
Introduction     291
Stand-alone system design procedure     291
Sandia National Laboratory approach     293
System Design for PV-Powered Water Pumping     301
Introduction     301
Insolation data manipulation     301
PV module characteristics     304
Example of a directly-coupled system design     509
Index     317