Table of Contents
Lists of Maps, Boxes, Figures, and Tables xv
Preface to the Third Edition xix
The Context of U.S. Foreign Policy: Theory and History 1
The Strategic Context: Foreign Policy Strategy and the Essence of Choice 2
Introduction: Foreign Policy in a Time of Transition 2
The Context of the International System 6
Quasi-anarchy 6
System Structure 6
State Structural Position 7
The National Interest: The 4 Ps Framework 8
Power 9
Peace 11
Prosperity 13
Principles 15
Dilemmas of Foreign Policy Choice: 4 Ps Complementarity, Trade-offs, and Bitter Conflicts 17
4 Ps Complementarity: Optimal, but Infrequent 17
4 Ps Trade-offs: More Frequent, More Problematic 19
4 Ps Dissensus: Bitter Conflicts 21
Summary 22
The Domestic Context: Foreign Policy Politics and the Process of Choice 25
Introduction: Dispelling the "Water's Edge" Myth 25
The President, Congress, and "Pennsylvania Avenue Diplomacy" 27
War Powers 28
Treaties and Other International Commitments 29
Appointments of Foreign Policy Officials 30
"Commerce with Foreign Nations" 31
General Powers 32
The Supreme Court as Referee? 34
Executive-Branch Politics 35
Presidents as Foreign Policy Leaders 36
Roles of Senior Foreign Policy Advisers 38
Bureaucratic Politics and Organizational Dynamics 39
Interest Groups and Their Influence 40
A Typology of Foreign Policy Interest Groups 42
Strategies and Techniques of Influence 44
The Extent of Interest-Group Influence: Analytic and Normative Considerations 46
The Impact of the News Media 49
Role of the Media: Cheerleader or Critic? 49
Modes of Influence 50
Freedom of the Press vs. National Security 51
The Nature and Influence of Public Opinion 53
Ignorant or Sensible? The Nature of Public Opinion about Foreign Policy 53
The Influence of Public Opinion on Foreign Policy 56
Summary 57
The Historical Context: Great Debates in American Foreign Policy, 1789-1945 61
Introduction: "The Past Is Prologue" 61
Great Debates over Foreign Policy Strategy 62
Isolationism vs. Internationalism 62
Power, Peace: How Big a Military, How Much for Defense? 66
Principles: True to American Democratic Ideals? 69
Prosperity: U.S. Imperialism? 73
Key Case: U.S. Relations with Latin America-Good Neighbor or Regional Hegemon? 77
Key Case: The United States as a Pacific Power 80
Great Debates in Foreign Policy Politics 82
Going to War 82
National Security vs. the Bill of Rights 84
Free Trade vs. Protectionism 87
Summary 89
The Cold War Context: Origins and First Stages 92
Introduction: "Present at the Creation" 92
Peace: International Institutionalism and the United Nations 94
The Original Vision of the United Nations 94
The Scaled-Back Reality 95
Power: Nuclear Deterrence and Containment 97
The Formative Period, 1947-50 100
Intensification, 1950s to the Early 1960s 105
Principles: Ideological Bipolarity and the Third World "ABC" Approach 108
Support for "ABC Democrats" 108
CIA Covert Action 110
Prosperity: Creation of the Liberal International Economic Order 111
The Major International Economic Institutions 111
Critiques: Economic Hegemony? Neo-Imperialism? 112
Foreign Policy Politics and the Cold War Consensus 113
Pennsylvania Avenue Diplomacy: A One-Way Street 113
Executive-Branch Politics and the Creation of the "National Security State" 116
Interest Groups, the Media, and Public Opinion: Benefits and Dangers of Consensus 119
Summary 124
The Cold War Context: Lessons and Legacies 128
Introduction: Turbulent Decades 128
The Vietnam War: A Profound Foreign Policy Setback 129
Foreign Policy Strategy: Failure on All Counts 130
Foreign Policy Politics: Shattering the Cold War Consensus 134
The Rise and Fall of Detente: Major Foreign Policy Shifts 138
Nixon, Kissinger, and the Rise of Detente 138
Reasons for the Fall of Detente 145
1970s Economic Shocks 148
The Nixon Shock, 1971 149
The OPEC Shocks, 1973 and 1979 149
The North-South Conflict and Demands for an "NIEO" 150
Trade with Japan and the Rest of the World 151
Reagan, Gorbachev, and the End of the Cold War 155
The 4 Ps under Reagan 155
Confrontational Foreign Policy Politics 161
The End of the Cold War: Why Did the Cold War End, and End Peacefully? 164
Summary 170
The Context of U.S. Foreign Policy 175
Power: The Mainsprings of American Foreign Policy 176
Peace: International Organization and World Order 180
Prosperity: The United States and World Economic Power 185
Principles: The United States and the Global Struggle for Democracy: Early 1990s Perspective 189
The President and Congress: What the Founding Fathers Intended 194
Bureaucratic Politics: Conceptual Models and the Cuban Missile Crisis 199
Public Opinion and Foreign Policy: Challenges to the Almond-Lippmann Consensus 201
Isolationism vs. Internationalism: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Coming of World War II 209
Imperialism: The American "New Empire" 217
Cold War Revisionist Critique: The American Conception of National Security and the Beginnings of the Cold War, 1945-48 224
Nuclear Deterrence Doctrine: Strategy in the Missile Age 231
Containment: The Sources of Soviet Conduct 237
Vietnam: The System Worked 241
Detente: The Search for a "Constructive Relationship" 245
End of the Cold War: The Unexpected Ronald Reagan 251
End of the Cold War: The Soviet Union's Crucial Role 254
American Foreign Policy in the Twenty-First Century: Choices and Challenges 257
Foreign Policy Strategy and Foreign Policy Politics in a New Era 258
Introduction: 11/9 and 9/11-Crumbling Wall and Crashing Towers 258
Foreign Policy Strategy for a New Era 259
The Unilateralism versus Multilateralism Debate 259
Force and Diplomacy: Striking a Balance 267
The United Nations 273
Security Threats from Nonstate Actors 277
Foreign Policy Politics: Diplomacy Begins at Home 280
Presidential-Congressional Relations: Post-Cold War Pennsylvania Avenue Diplomacy 281
Executive-Branch Politics: Issues of Leadership and Bureaucracy 287
Foreign Policy Interest Groups: Proliferation and Intensification 294
The News Media: New Technologies, Recurring Issues 296
Public Opinion: Currents and Cross-Currents 298
Summary 303
Post-Cold War Geopolitics: U.S. Relations with Major Powers and the Challenges of WMD Proliferation 308
Major Powers Geopolitics 309
Keeping Them Down or Bringing Them In: Primacy vs. Integration 309
Russia 310
China 321
Western Europe 328
The Future of NATO 330
Japan 335
India 337
WMD Proliferation 339
Nuclear Nonproliferation Regime 340
Libya 342
Iran 344
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) 345
Chemical and Biological Weapons 345
Land Mines and the Regime-Creating Role of NGOs 347
Foreign Policy Politics 348
The China Lobbies 348
Congressional Defeat of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), 1999 351
Summary 353
9/11, Iraq, and the Middle East 359
September 13, 1993, to September 11, 2001: From Hope to Tragedy 359
Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm: The 1990-91 Persian Gulf War 361
9/11 and the War on Terrorism 363
The Overall Bush Administration Strategy 365
Debate over the Bush Strategy 370
Sources and Nature of Terrorism 372
The Iraq War 374
Rationale for Going to War: Validity? Honesty? 379
Results: Winning the Peace? 381
Ramifications: Iraq and the 4 Ps 384
The Arab-Israeli Conflict 390
Foreign Policy Politics: Terrorism, Homeland Security, and the Iraq War 397
National Security, the Bill of Rights, and the War on Terrorism 398
The Department of Homeland Security and Executive-Branch Politics 404
Domestic Politics of the Iraq War 407
Summary 415
Never Again or Yet Again? Genocide and Humanitarian Intervention 421
Introduction: Success and Failure, Hope and Despair 421
Is the U.S. National Interest at Stake? 426
What Are the Driving Forces of Wars of Identity? 428
What about National Sovereignty? 430
When Should Military Force Be Used? 433
Who Decides on Intervention? 438
How to Intervene Effectively? 440
The 1992-95 Bosnian War 440
The 1999 Kosovo War 442
From Clinton to Bush 442
UN Military Peace Operations 443
Darfur: "Yet Again" 446
Foreign Policy Politics: War Powers, Public Opinion, and Humanitarian Intervention 450
War Powers 450
The Media and the "CNN Curve" 453
Public Opinion and Humanitarian Intervention 454
Summary 455
The Globalization Agenda 461
Introduction: American Foreign Policy in an Era of Globalization 461
The Globalization Debate 462
International Trade 469
The World Trade Organization (WTO) 471
Geo-Economics: Friends as Foes? 474
International Finance 475
1990s Financial Crises 475
Policy Debates over the IMF 477
Global Poverty and Sustainable Development 479
Poverty and the Human Condition 479
U.S Foreign Aid Policy 482
The World Bank 483
Overpopulation and World Hunger 484
Global Public Health 488
Global AIDS 489
Avian Flu and the "DMD" Threat 490
Global Environmental Issues 491
Foreign Policy Politics: The New Politics of Globalization and the Old Politics of Trade 495
NGOs and the Politics of Globalization 496
Making U.S. Trade Policy: Process and Politics 498
Summary 503
The Coming of a Democratic Century? 507
Introduction: Democracy and the U.S. National Interest 507
Global Democracy and Human Rights: Status and Prospects 510
Post-Cold War Democratic Success Stories 510
Limits and Uncertainties 514
Principles and Peace: The Democratic Peace Debate 519
Democratic Peace Theory 520
Critiques and Caveats 523
Principles and Power: Tensions and Trade-Offs 525
From ABC to ABT? 525
Principles as Power: Soft Power's Significance 526
Principles and Prosperity: The Economic Sanctions Debate 531
Key Cases 532
Policy Strategies for Promoting Democracy and Protecting Human Rights 534
Who: Key International Actors 534
How: Key Strategies 536
What: Assessing Effectiveness 544
Foreign Policy Politics: Economic Sanctions and the South Africa Case 547
Summary 550
American Foreign Policy in the Twenty-First Century: Choices and Challenges 555
Unilateralism: The Unipolar Moment Revisited 556
The United Nations: "We the Peoples" 561
America as the World's Government: The Case for Goliath 568
Taming American Power: The Problem of American Power 571
Bush Doctrine on Pre-emption: Pre-Emption and National Security Strategy 573
Bush Doctrine Critique: America's Imperial Ambition 575
A Global Strategy against Terrorism: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States 579
The Responsibility to Protect: The Case for Humanitarian Intervention 582
The Media and Foreign Policy: The Media and U.S. Policies Toward Intervention: A Closer Look at the "CNN Effect 585
The Global AIDS Crisis: 2006 Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic 593
The Planetary Emergency of Global Warming: An Inconvenient Truth 597
NGOs: Transnational Networks in International Politics: An Introduction 600
The Triumph of Democracy: The End of History? 609
Ongoing Threats to Democracy: The Clash of Civilizations? 613
Democratic Peace?: Democratization and the Danger of War 620
Permissions Acknowledgments A1
Index A3
