Foreword     xvii
Preface     xxi
Acknowledgments     xxv
The Colonial Experience, 1607-1776     1
The Colonists at Jamestown     2
The Spanish Colonists in Florida     2
The Pilgrims and Puritans     3
Puritan Educational Emphasis and Educational Philosophy     4
The Home     4
The Church     5
The School     6
Puritans' and Pilgrims' Relationships With Native Americans     7
Education Contributions of Other Groups     10
Dutch and Other Settlers in the Mid-Atlantic Colonies     10
Settlers in Maryland and Other Areas in the South     11
The Extent of the Puritan Contribution     11
Growth of Higher Education Before the Revolutionary War     16
Deterioration of Puritan and Native American Relations     20
Conclusion     25
The Effects of the Revolutionary War Era on American Education     31
Distinguishing a Truly American System of Education     31
The Curricular Level     33
The Elementary/Secondary School Level     36
The Rise of Charity Schools     37
Unique Aspects of the Charity School     40
Forming the Foundation of Future Education     41
The Spread of the Massachusetts Charity School Model     42
Supplements to Charity Schools     43
Free Schools and African Americans     44
Where African Americans Attended Charity Schools     46
The Charity School Movement Nationwide     47
Joseph Lancaster and the New Charity School Model     47
The Place of Dewitt Clinton     48
The Decline of the Charity School System     53
The College Level     54
Conclusion     56
Early Political Debates and Their Effect on the American Education System     61
Views of the Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists     61
Presidents and Educational Leaders     63
How Victories by Democratic-Republicans Influenced American Education     67
A Decentralized Education System     67
Strong Private and State Systems of Higher Education     72
A Likely Delay in Freeing the Slaves     72
Conclusion     78
Education, African Americans, and Slavery     81
African American Education in the North     81
The Puritans and the Quakers     82
Other Efforts Dedicated to the Education of African Americans      84
The Debate Over the Need for African American Education     86
Acceleration of the Charity School Movement     87
African American Leaders     90
Education of African Americans in the South     92
Alternative Means of Educating African Americans in the South     92
Changing American Education Forever: Events Leading Up to the Election of Lincoln and Liberation for the Slaves     96
Attitudes of Northerners Toward Slavery Before the Late 1850s     97
Early Revivals Culminating in the Revival of 1857 to 1858     98
The Revival's First Influence: On Educators     98
The Revival's Second Influence: On Abolitionists     100
The Revival's Third Influence: On Authors of Books Used in Schools     102
Concluding Thoughts on the Revival     102
American Northern Heroes     103
Conclusion     105
The Education of Women, Native Americans, Latinos, and Asian Americans     111
Education of Women     111
Influence of the Revolutionary War on Female Education     112
Emergence of Women's Colleges     113
Gender Imbalances of the Mid-1800s     116
Economic Development Reduces Gender Gaps     117
The Post-Civil War Surge      118
Prominent Female Educators     120
Post-World War II Advances     121
African American Concerns About Women's Education Trends     121
Concluding Thoughts on the Education of Women     123
Education of Native Americans     123
Henricho College     124
Educating Native Americans in New England     124
The Role of Thomas McKenney     126
The Election of Andrew Jackson: An Unfortunate Turning Point     127
Native American Boarding Schools and the Meriam Report     128
Education of Asian Americans     130
Education of Chinese and Chinese Americans     131
Education of Japanese and Japanese Americans     133
Education of Latinos     134
Mexicans and Mexican Americans and Education     134
Changes Over the Decades     136
Puerto Ricans and Education     138
Conclusion     139
The Widespread Growth of the Common School and Higher Education     145
Horace Mann and the Rise of the Common Schools     145
Mann's Arguments That Common Schools Would Promote the Common Good     146
Common Schools Would Level the Playing Field Between Rich and Poor Students     147
Common Schools Would Promote Moral Education     147
Common Schools Would Help Ensure Quality Teaching     149
Common Schools Would Unite the Country by Teaching Common Values     150
Resistance to Public Schools     150
Political Opposition     150
Parental Opposition     152
Contemporaries of Horace Mann in the Common School Movement     153
Henry Barnard     153
James Carter     155
Calvin Stowe     155
Samuel Seelye     156
Teacher Institutes and Normal Schools     156
The Civil War and the Common School Movement     158
Common Schools Become More Accepted     158
Male Versus Female Teachers     158
Johann Pestalozzi     159
William McGuffey     163
The Growth of Higher Education During the First Half of the 1800s     163
Dartmouth College v. Woodward, U.S. Supreme Court Case     163
Where State Universities Grew and Where They Did Not     168
The Presence of Ivy League Colleges     169
Population Factors     170
Proximity of Quality Religious Colleges     170
Interest in Founding a State University     171
Resistance to Establishing a State College      171
Politics     172
The Growth of State Colleges in Other States     172
Maryland     172
Federal Support of Colleges in States Not Among the Original 13     173
State Universities That Started as Religious Institutions     174
Conclusion     175
The Effects of the Events During and Between the Civil War and World War I     181
Impact of the Civil War     181
Impact of the Post-Civil War Period     182
Urbanization     182
Industrialization     184
Debate Over African American Education     185
Increased Immigration     188
Advantages of Increased Immigration     188
Strains of Increased Immigration     190
Language Considerations     190
Volume of Enrollment     190
Adaptation Issues     190
Social Role of the School     192
Land Grant Colleges     193
Black Colleges Benefit     194
Major Events in the Post-Civil War Period     195
Teacher Training Previous to This Period     195
Growth of Teacher Training in the Post-Civil War Period     196
Coursework at Normal Schools     199
College and Universities Increasingly Found Teacher Education Departments     200
Increased Standardization of Teacher Education     200
Events Leading Up to and Including World War I     200
Added Definition to America's Education System     200
Other Impacts of World War I on the American Education System     202
Intensification of the Americanization Program     202
Curbs on Immigration     203
Conclusion     204
The Liberal Philosophy of Education as Distinguished From Conservatism     211
Schools of Educational Philosophy     211
History of the Philosophy of Education     211
Four Primary Schools of Educational Thought     214
Additional Educational Approaches     215
Complexity of the Philosophy of Education     215
Educational Philosophy of John Dewey     217
What Dewey Believed     219
Other Liberal Reformers     224
Herbert Spencer     224
Joseph Lee and Henry Curtis     227
William Kilpatrick     228
Ella Flagg Young     229
Moderate Liberals     229
Colin Scott     229
Johann Herbart     229
Moderates      230
Friedrich Froebel     230
Maria Montessori     231
Neoconservatives     234
H. H. Horne     234
William James     236
Edward Thorndike     237
Conclusion     238
The Great Depression and the Long-Term Effects of World War II and the Cold War on American Education     243
Educational Challenges of the Great Depression (1929-1941)     243
Cutbacks     243
How Students Increased Achievement During the Great Depression     244
General Conditions in Education During the Great Depression     247
Tensions Between Practical Parents and Idealistic Academics     249
Final Thoughts on the Great Depression and Education     249
The Impact of World War II on Education     249
Foundation Stone for the Civil Rights Movement     249
The Rise of Community Colleges     258
The Cold War     259
Sputnik Shock     260
Lessons From Sputnik Shock     265
Impact of the Cold War on Physical Education Opportunities for Women     266
Conclusion     270
The Civil Rights Movement and Federal Involvement in Educational Policy     277
Truman's Contribution      277
Pursuit of Civil Rights Legislation in the Courts     284
Brown V. Board of Education     285
Brown v. Board of Education Helps Build Momentum for the Civil Rights Movement     288
Expanding the Reach of the Civil Rights Movement: Affirmative Action     289
A Heated Debate Arises     291
The Allan Bakke Case     292
Affirmative Action as an Ideal and in the Actual World     294
The University of Michigan Case     294
The Future of Affirmative Action     295
Expanding the Reach of the Civil Rights Movement: Bilingual Education     296
The Roots of Widespread Bilingual Education     296
Different Types of Bilingual Education Programs     297
Different Types of English Immersion Programs     297
Controversies Connected With Bilingual Education     298
Pros and Cons of Bilingual Education     298
The Pro-Bilingual Instruction Perspective     299
The Pro-English Immersion Instruction Perspective     300
Assessing the Arguments of the Pro-Bilingual and Pro-Immersion Instructional Orientation: Can a Compromise Be Reached?     301
The Upcoming Decision     302
Conclusion     303
The Turbulence of the 1960s     309
The Vietnam War and Student Activism     309
Some Context Regarding Student Demonstrations     309
The Rise of Student Demonstrations     311
Student Demonstrations Intensify     313
Long-Term Effects of Student Demonstrations     314
Questioning Authority     314
Historical Revisionism     315
Changes in Students Over Time     316
Civil Rights and Education     317
The New York City Teachers' Strike     322
The Tumultuous National Background     322
Perspectives of African American and Other Minority Parents     323
United Federation of Teachers' Perspective     326
Laudable Goals But Misguided Strategy     326
First, a Localized Teachers' Strike     328
The Citywide Teachers' Strike of 1968     328
The Primacy of New Educational Thought     331
Rethinking Educational Philosophy     332
A. S. Neill     332
John Goodlad     332
Jerome Bruner     333
Jean Piaget     333
Lawrence Kohlberg     334
Ivan Illich     334
Rethinking Research and Pedagogy     335
Lee Cronbach and David Campbell      336
Benjamin Bloom     336
The Removal of Prayer From Schools     337
Arguments in Favor of the Supreme Court Decision     339
Misapplication of the Supreme Court Decisions     339
Possible Price of Taking Prayer and Moral Education out of Schools     340
Sex Education     342
Conclusion     343
The Rise of Public Criticism of Education     349
Basic Arguments     350
Educators in the Excellence Movement     350
Educators Who Disagree With the Excellence Movement     354
The Revisionist View of Achievement During the 1960s and 1970s     355
Those Who Question the Utility of Standardized Tests     356
Addressing the Data     357
The Trends in Achievement Test Scores     357
Attempting to Explain the Academic Decline     358
The Case for Compositional Change     358
Increased Percentage of Students Taking the SAT     358
The Case for Academic Decline     361
Achievement Tests Administered From 1963 to 1970     361
Achievement Tests Administered From 1970 to 1980     364
International Comparison Tests     365
Possible Explanations for the Real Academic Achievement Decline      367
Decline of the Family     368
Decline of the Work Ethic     368
Changes in 1960s Culture     369
What Does the College Board's Assessment Mean?     371
Advances in Public Education From 1963 to 1980     371
The Influence of Rising Criticism on Schools     372
Conclusion     373
The Rise of Multlculturalism and Other Issues     377
The Rise of Multiculturalism     378
What Made a Multicultural Orientation Possible?     378
Multiculturalism Replaces Americanization     379
The Success of Multicultural Curricula     381
The Debate About Multiculturalism     381
Those Who Favor the Present Implementation of Multiculturalism     382
Reasons for a Multicultural Approach     382
Those Who Support Many Manifestations of Multiculturalism but Are Concerned About the Kind of Multiculturalism That America Supports     385
Integrationalists     385
Those Concerned With National Unity     387
Those Concerned With Absolute Values     388
Those Who Oppose Multiculturalism     389
The Future of Multiculturalism     390
Going Beyond Multiculturalism     391
Vocational Education      392
Education for Children With Special Needs or Disabilities     393
Conclusion     398
Educational Reform Under Republicans and Democrats     405
Reforms Under Republican Presidents Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and George W. Bush     405
The Back to the Basics Movement     405
School Choice     409
Experimentation but Not Wide Implementation of School Choice     410
Analyzing the Possible Effects of School Choice     411
No Child Left Behind     412
Criticisms of No Child Left Behind     414
Reforms Under Democratic President Bill Clinton     415
Preparing Students for the Technological World     415
Public School Choice     416
The Participation Rate issue     417
Nationalized Standards     418
The Political Atmosphere Today     421
Conclusion     422
Other Recent Educational Issues and Reforms     427
Equalization of School Expenditures     428
The Movement Toward Equalized Funding     429
Should the United States Equalize Funding?     430
School Shootings     430
Reasons for the Shootings     433
How Widespread Is Juvenile Violence and Crime?     433
Possible Solutions to School Shootings     434
School Uniforms     435
Long Beach Claims Success     436
School Uniform Programs Greatly Expand     436
Do School Uniforms Really Help?     436
The Influence of the Family     437
Family Structure     437
Parental Involvement     439
Learning From Foreign Systems of Education     440
To What Degree Are East Asian Schools Worthy of Emulation?     440
To What Extent Can American Schools Learn From Other Systems of Education?     441
Technology in the Schools     443
Homeschooling     444
Conclusion     446
Index     453
About the Author     469